Haemato-biochemical changes in epizooticulcerative syndrome (EUS) infected striped murrel (Channa striata) cultured in inland saline water

Panneerselvam  Dheeran; Ajit Kumar Verma; Sreedharan  Krishnan; Kishore Kumar  Krishnani; Chandrakant Mallikarjun  Hittinahalli; Anutosh  Paria; Pratapa Malleshappa  Gudvi

doi:10.21077/ijf.2025.72.2.151489-14

Authors

Panneerselvam Dheeran ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai
Ajit Kumar Verma
Sreedharan Krishnan ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai
Kishore Kumar Krishnani ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai
Chandrakant Mallikarjun Hittinahalli ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai
Anutosh Paria 2ICAR-National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow
Pratapa Malleshappa Gudvi ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai

https://doi.org/10.21077/ijf.2025.72.2.151489-14

Keywords:

Aquaculture production, Aetiology, Aphanomyces invadans, Inland saline groundwater, Pathogens

Abstract

Epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) causes infection in a wide range of fish species, often leading to significant mortality worldwide. Among the susceptible hosts, snakeheads are reported to be particularly vulnerable. A 120-day investigation was undertaken to examine the impact of salinity on Channa striata cultured in inland saline water. Twenty-four circular fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) tanks ( 400 l capacity) were filled with water adjusted to eight salinity levels viz., 0 ppt (control) and treatments T1-T7 (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 ppt) each in triplicates, following a completely randomised design. Each tank was stocked with 24 juveniles (mean weight: 8±2.09 g) and fed with Growel feed containing 42% crude protein twice daily (09.00 hrs and 17.00 hrs). Mortalities were noticed in fish reared at 0, 12 and 14 ppt salinity levels, around the 90th day after introduction into the experimental tanks. Affected fish were found lethargic, swimming at water surface, pale and isolated, having fungal growth and haemorrhages with ulcerated skin. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmed the presence of EUS in affected fish. Both biochemical and haematological parameters altered in the affected fish. The findings suggest that moderate salinity levels in inland saline water may help prevent the occurrence of EUS and could be effectively employed for sustainable aquaculture of C. striata.

Keywords: Aquaculture production, Aetiology, Aphanomyces invadans, Inland saline groundwater, Pathogens

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Adinarayana, P., Koteswara, R., Sriniasa, P., Srinivasa, R., Hyder, I. and Sharma, S. 2017. Histopathological changes in the gills of fresh water fish Channa striatus (Bloch) infected with epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS). Int. J. Fish. Aquac., 5(1): 515-518.

Adinarayana, P., Rao, D. K., Prasad, C. S. and Sharma, S. V. 2015. Haematological changes in the murrel Channa striatus (Bloch) infected with epizootic ulcerative syndrome. Indo-Am. J. Agric. Vet. Sci., 3(1): 59-65.

Ali, H. and Ansari, S. 2023. Haematological and biochemical anomalies in catfish, Clarias batrachus due to cutaneous ulcerations. Flora. Fauna., 29(1): 129-134. https://doi.org/10.33451/florafauna.v29i1pp129-134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33451/florafauna.v29i1pp129-134

Aly, S. M., Abou-El-Atta, M. E., El-Mahallawy, H. S., Elaswad, A., ElAbyad, F. A. and ElBanna, N. I. 2023. Aeromonas veronii and ulcerative syndrome in cultured Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and their associated factors. Aquac. Int., 31(5): 2867–2881. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-023-01113-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-023-01113-8

Andrew, T. G., Huchzermeyer, K. D. A., Mbeha, B. C. and Nengu, S. M. 2008. Epizootic ulcerative syndrome affecting fish in the Zambezi river system in southern Africa. Vet. Rec., 163(21): 629–631. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.163.21.629. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.163.21.629

APHA 2005. Standard methods for eXamination of water and wastewater, 21st edn. American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington DC.

Arockia Sharmila, S., Srivastava, A. and Khairnar, S. O. 2023. Salinity tolerance and survival of an Indian major carp, Cirrhinus mrigala (mrigal): Feasibility assessment for rearing in inland saline water. Ecol. Environ. Conserv., 29(1): 204-212. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53550/EEC.2023.v29i01.034

Azad, I. S., Rajendran, K. V., Rajan, J. J. S., Vijayan, K. K. and Santiago, T. C. (2001). Virulence and histopathology of Aeromonas hydrophila (SAH93) in experimentally infected tilapia, Oreochromis mosambicus. J. Aquac. Trop., 16: 265–275.

Baldock, F. C., Blazer, V., Callinan, R., Hatai, K., Karunasagar, I., Mohan, C. V. and Bondad-Reantaso, M. G. 2005. Outcomes of a short expert consultation on epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS): Re-examination of causal factors, case definition and nomenclature. In: Walker, P., Laster R., Bondad-Reantaso, M. G. (Eds.), Diseases in Asian aquaculture V, Fish Health Section, Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Phillippines, pp. 555-585.

Bell, T. A. and Lightner, D. V. 1988. A handbook of normal penaeid shrimp histology. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA, USA (No. 595.3843 B4).

Blazer, V. S., Lilley, J. H., Schill, W. B., Kiryu, Y., Densmore, C. L., Panyawachira, V. and Chinabut, S. 2002. Aphanomyces invadans in Atlantic Menhaden along the east coast of the United States. J. Aquat. Anim. Health., 14(1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8667(2002)014<0001:AIIAMA>2.0.CO;2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8667(2002)014<0001:AIIAMA>2.0.CO;2

Cai, W. Q., Li, S. F. and Ma, J. Y. 2004. Diseases resistance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus) and their hybrid (female Nile tilapia× male blue tilapia) to Aeromonas sobria. Aquaculture., 229(1-4): 79-87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00357-0

Chinabut, S. 1994. EUS in Thailand. In: Roberts, R. J., Campbell B., Macrae, I. H. (Eds.), Proceedings of the ODA regional seminar on epizootic ulcerative syndrome. Aquatic Animal Health Research Institute, Bangkok, pp. 58-60.

Chondar, S. L. and Rao, P. S. 1996. Epizootic ulcerative syndrome disease to fish and its control: A review. World Aquaculture, Book of Abstracts, World Aquaculture Society, Bangkok, p.77.

Choongo, K., Hang’ombe, B., Samui, K. L., Syachaba, M., Phiri, H., Maguswi, C., Muyangaali, K., Bwalya, G. and Mataa, L. 2009. Environmental and climatic factors associated with epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) in fish from the Zambezi floodplains, Zambia. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 83(4): 474–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-009-9799-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-009-9799-0

Cruz-Lacierda, E. R. and Shariff, M. 1995. Experimental transmission of epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) in snakehead, Ophicephalus striatus. In: Shariff, M., Arthur, J. R., Subasinghe, R. P. (Eds.), Diseases in Asian Aquaculture II: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture, 25-29 October 1993, Phuket, Thailand. Metro Manila, Philippines: Fish Health Section, Asian Fisheries Society, pp. 327–336.

Deshmukh, S., Paliwal, G., Bhandarkar, S., Patankar, S. and Rajankar, M. 2020. A report of epizootic ulcerative syndrom (EUS) in Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) from freshwater fisheries lake in Gondia district Maharashtra. Int. J. Fish. Aquat. Stud., 8: 189-191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/fish.2020.v8.i6c.2377

Doumas, B. T., Watson, W. A. and Biggs, H. G. 1971. Albumin standards and the measurement of serum albumin with bromcresol green. Clin. Chim. Acta., 31(1): 87-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-8981(71)90365-2

Dutta, H. M. 2017. A composite approach for evaluation of the effects of pesticides on fish. In: Fish morphology. Routledge, pp 249-277. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203755990-15

Egusa, S. and Masuda, N. 1971. A new fungal of Plecoglossus altivelis. Fish Pathol., 6(1): 41–46. https://doi.org/10.3147/jsfp.6.41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3147/jsfp.6.41

Faisal, M. and Hargis, W. J. 1992. Augmentation of mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation in Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, with ulcer disease syndrome. Fish. Shellfish. Immunol., 2(1): 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1050-4648(06)80025-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1050-4648(06)80025-2

FAO 2019. Fisheries and aquaculture department, species fact sheet, Channa striata (Bloch, 1973). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

Hanjavanit, C., Suda, H. and Hatai, K. 1997. Mycotic granulomatosis found in two species of ornamental fishes imported from Singapore. Mycoscience., 38: 433–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02461684. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02461684

Herbert, B., Jones, J. B., Mohan, C. V. and Perera, R. P. (2019). Impacts of epizootic ulcerative syndrome on subsistence fisheries and wildlife. Rev. Sci. Tech.- OIE., 38(2): 459–475. https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.38.2.2998. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.38.2.2998

Islam, M., Ahsan, D. A., Mandal, S. C. and Hossain, A. 2014. Effects of salinity changes on growth performance and survival of rohu fingerlings, Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822). J. Coast. Dev., 17(1): 379.

Issac, P., Sarkar, P., Raju V, S., Guru, A., Arshad, A. B., Arockiaraj, J. and Elumalai, P. 2020. Pathogenicity and pathobiology of epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) causing fungus Aphanomyces invadans and its immunological response in fish. Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac., 28(3): 358-375. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2020.1753167. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2020.1753167

Kamilya, D. and Baruah, A. 2014. Epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) in fish: History and current status of understanding. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish., 24(1): 369–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-013-9335-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-013-9335-5

Kaminskas, S. 2020. Alien pathogens and parasites impacting native freshwater fish of southern Australia: A scientific and historical review. Aust. Zool., 41(4): 696–730. https://doi.org/10.7882/AZ.2020.039. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7882/AZ.2020.039

Kanchanakhan, S. 1996. Epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS): A new look at the old story. Aquatic Animal Health Research Institute (AAHRI), Newsletter, 5(1): 2.

Khan, M. H., Lilley, J. H., Majumder, B., Sarker, Md. G. A., Alauddin, Md., Hoque, A., Ahmed, G. U. and Chowdhury, M. B. 2002. Cross-sectional survey of epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) cases in Bangladesh. In: Lavilla-Pitogo C. R., Cruz-Lacierda, E. R. (Eds.), Diseases in Asian aquaculture IV: Proceedings of the Fourth Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture, 22-26 November 1999, Cebu City, Philippines. Fish Health Section, Asian Fisheries Society, pp. 395-405.

Kumari, S., Tiwari, V. K., Rani, A. M. B., Kumar, R. and Praksah, S. 2018. Effect of feeding rate on growth, survival and cannibalism in striped snakehead, Channa striata (Bloch, 1793) fingerlings. J. Exp. Zool., 21: 205–210.

Kumar, M. U., Ansal, M. D. and Kaur, V. I. 2018. Salinity tolerance and survival of freshwater carp, Labeo rohita Ham.(rohu) in inland saline water. Indian J. Ecol., 45(4): 872-875.

Lawson, E. O. and Alake, S. A. 2011. Salinity adaptability and tolerance of hatchery reared comet goldfish Carassius auratus (Linnaeus 1758). Int. J. Zool. Res., 7(1): 68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijzr.2011.68.76

Lilley, J. H., Callinan, R. B., Chinabut, S., Kanchanakhan, S., MacRae, I. H. and Phillips, M. J. 1998. Epizootic Ulcerative Snydrome (EUS) Technical Handbook. Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations.

Lilley, J. H., Phillips, M. J. and Tonguthai, K. 1992. A review of epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) in Asia. Aquatic Animal Health Research Institute and Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, p 73.

Mangat, H. K. and Hundal, S. S. 2014. Salinity tolerance of laboratory reared fingerlings of common carp, Cyprinus carpio (Linn.) during different seasons. Int. J. Adv. Res., 2(11): 491-496.

McKenzie, R. A. and Hall, W. T. K. 1976. Dermal ulceration of mullet (Mugil cephalus). Aust. Vet. J., 52(5): 230–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1976.tb00076.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1976.tb00076.x

Meyers, T. and Hendricks, J. 1985. Histopathology. In: Rand M., Petrocelli, S. R. (Eds.), Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, U.S.A, pp 283-331.

Miles, D. J., Kanchanakhan, S., Lilley, J. H., Thompson, K. D., Chinabut, S. and Adams, A. 2001. Effect of macrophages and serum of fish susceptible or resistant to epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) on the EUS pathogen, Aphanomyces invadans. Fish. Shellfish. Immunol., 11(7): 569-584. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/fsim.2001.0334

Miyazaki, T. 1994. Comparison among mycotic granulomatosis, saprolegniasis and anaaki-byo in fishes: A Japanese experience. In: Roberts, R. J., Campbell B., MacRae, I. H. (Eds.), Proceedings of the ODA regional seminar on epizootic ulcerative syndrome. Aquatic Animal Health Research Institute, Bangkok, pp 253-270.

Mohan, C. V., Bhatta, R., Mohan, C. V. and Bhatt, R. 2002. Social and economic impacts of aquatic animal health problems on aquaculture in India. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 406: 63–75. https://eurekamag.com/research/003/936/003936135.php.

Mohan, C. V. and Shankar, K. M. 1995. Role of fungus in epizootic ulcerative syndrome of fresh-and brackishwater fishes of India: A histopathological assessment. In: Shariff, M., Arthur J. R., Subasinghe R. P. (Eds.), Diseases in Asian Aquaculture II: Proceedings of the second symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture in Phuket, Thailand in 1993. Fish Health Section, Asian Fisheries Society, Makati, Philippines, pp. 299-305.

Nuwansi, K. K. T., Verma, A. K., Chandrakant, M. H., Prabhath, G. P. W. A. and Peter, R. M. 2021. Optimization of stocking density of koi carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Koi) with gotukola (Centella asiatica) in an aquaponic system using phytoremediated aquaculture wastewater. Aquaculture., 532: 735993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735993. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735993

Oidtmann, B., Steinbauer, P., Geiger, S. and Hoffmann, R. 2008. Experimental infection and detection of Aphanomyces invadans in European catfish, rainbow trout and European eel. Dis. Aquat. Organ., 82: 195–207. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao01973. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/dao01973

OIE 2003. Diagnostic manual for aquatic animal diseases, 2000, 3rd edition. Office international des epizooties, Paris, France, p 237.

Patel, R. K., Verma, A. K., Krishnani, K. K., Sreedharan, K. and Chandrakant, M. H. 2022. Growth performance, physio-metabolic, and haemato-biochemical status of Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822) juveniles reared at varying salinity levels using inland saline groundwater. Aquaculture., 559: 738408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2022.738408. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2022.738408

Pathiratne, A. and Rajapaksha, W. 1998. Haematological changes associated with epizootic ulcerative syndrome in the Asian Cichlid fish. Asian Fish. Sci., 11: 3-4. http://repository.kln.ac.lk/handle/123456789/4338. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33997/j.afs.1998.11.3-4.003

Phadee, P., Kurata, O., Hatai, K., Hirono, I. and Aoki, T. 2004. Detection and Identification of fish-pathogenic Aphanomyces piscicida using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with species-specific primers. J. Aquat. Anim. Health., 16(4): 220–230. https://doi.org/10.1577/H03-047.1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1577/H03-047.1

Podeti, K. R. and Benarjee, G. 2017. Haematological changes in south Indian fresh water murrel, Channa punctatus have both EUS and A. hydrophila infection. J. Parasit. Dis., 41(2): 329–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-016-0798-x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-016-0798-x

Pradhan, P. K., Mohan, C. V., Shankar, K. M., Kumar, B. M. and Devaraja, G. 2007. Yearlings of Indian major carps resist infection against the epizootic ulcerative syndrome pathogen, Aphanomyces invadans. Curr. Sci., 1430-1434.

Pradhan, P. K., Rathore, G., Sood, N., Swaminathan, T. R., Yadav, M. K., Verma, D. K., Chaudhary, D. K., Abidi, R., Punia, P. and Jena, J. K. 2014. Emergence of epizootic ulcerative syndrome: Large-scale mortalities of cultured and wild fish species in Uttar Pradesh, India. Curr. Sci., 1711-1718.

Prangnell, D. I. and Fotedar, R. 2006. The growth and survival of western king prawns, Penaeus latisulcatus Kishinouye, in potassium-fortified inland saline water. Aquaculture, 259(1–4): 234–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.05.023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.05.023

Ramalingam, K. 1985. Effects of DDT and malathion on tissue succinic dehydrogenase activity (SDH) and lactic dehydrogenase isoenzymes (LDH) of Sarotherodon mossambicus (Peters). Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 90: 527–531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03186363

Rao, P. K. 2023. Pathological and pathobiology of epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) causing Aspergillus fumigatus and its immunological response in freshwater fish of Channa striatus. J. Fish. Sci., 17(3): 127.

Reinhold, J. G. 1953. Standard methods in clinical chemistry. Vol I Academic Press, New York, p 88.

Roberts, R. J., Frerichs, G. N., Tonguthai, K. and Chinabut, S. 1994. Epizootic ulcerative syndrome of farmed and wild fishes. In: Muir, J. F., Roberts, R. J. (Eds.), Recent advances in aquaculture. Blackwell Science, pp 207–239.

Roberts, R. J., Willoughby, L. G. and Chinabut, S. 1993. Mycotic aspects of epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) of Asian fishes. J. Fish. Dis., 16(3): 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2761.1993.tb01248.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2761.1993.tb01248.x

Roberts, R. J., Wootten, R., MacRae, I., Millar, S. and Struthers, W. 1989. Ulcerative disease survey, Bangladesh. Final report to the Government of Bangladesh and the Overseas Development Administration, Institute of Aquaculture, Stirling University, Scotland.

Saylor, R. K., Miller, D. L., Vandersea, M. W., Bevelhimer, M. S., Schofield, P. J. and Bennett, W. A. 2010. Epizootic ulcerative syndrome caused by Aphanomyces invadans in captive bullseye snakehead Channa marulius collected from south Florida, USA. Dis. Aquat. Organ., 88(2): 169–175. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao02158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/dao02158

Sarma, K., Dey, A., Kumar, S., Chaudhary, B. K., Mohanty, S., Kumar, T., Prasad, S. S. and Bhatt, B. P. 2020. Effect of salinity on growth, survival and biochemical alterations in the freshwater fish Labeo rohita (Hamilton 1822). Indian. J. Fish., 67(2): 41-47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21077/ijf.2019.67.2.86894-06

Singh, G., Ansal, M. D., & Kaur, V. I. 2018. Salinity tolerance and survival of freshwater carp, Cyprinus carpio Linn. in inland saline water. Indian J. Ecol., 45(3): 598-601.

Singh, S., Reddy, A. K., Harikrishna, V., Srivastava, P. P. and Lakra, W. S. 2020. Growth and osmoregulatory response of Cyprinus carpio haematopterus (amur carp) reared in inland saline water. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 90(1): 120-124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.56093/ijans.v90i1.98245

Sosa, E. R., Landsberg, J. H., Kiryu, Y., Stephenson, C. M., Cody, T. T., Dukeman, A. K., Wolfe, H. P., Vandersea, M. W. and Litaker, R. W. 2007. Pathogenicity Studies with the fungi Aphanomyces invadans, Achlya bisexualis, and Phialemonium dimorphosporum: Induction of skin ulcers in striped mullet. J. Aquat. Anim. Health., 19(1): 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1577/H06-013.1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1577/H06-013.1

Thapa, G. B. and Pal, J. 2022. Histopathology of the fish infected with the epizootic ulcerative syndrome in eastern Nepal. Nepal. J. Zool., 6(1): 20-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/njz.v6i1.46750

Thompson, K. D., Lilley, J. H., Chen, S.-C., Adams, A. and Richards, R. H. 1999. The immune response of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) against Aphanomyces invadans. Fish. Shellfish. Immunol., 9(3): 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1006/fsim.1998.0198. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/fsim.1998.0198

Van der Oost, R., Beyer, J. and Vermeulen, N. P. E. 2003. Fish bioaccumulation and biomarkers in environmental risk assessment: A review. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 13(2): 57–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1382-6689(02)00126-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1382-6689(02)00126-6

Vandersea, M. W., Litaker, R. W., Yonnish, B., Sosa, E., Landsberg, J. H., Pullinger, C., Moon-Butzin, P., Green, J., Morris, J. A., Kator, H., Noga, E. J. and Tester, P. A. 2006. Molecular assays for detecting Aphanomyces invadans in ulcerative mycotic fish lesions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 72(2): 1551–1557. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.72.2.1551-1557.2006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.72.2.1551-1557.2006

Vidthayanon, C. 2002. Peat Swamp Fishes of Thailand. Office of Environmental Policy and Planning. Bangkok, Thailand, p 136.

Viswanath, T. S., Mohan, C. V. and Shankar, K. M. 1997. Clinical and histopathological characterization of different types of lesions associated with epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS). J. Aquac. Trop., 12(1): 35-42.

Yin, Z., Lam, T. J. and Sin, Y. M. 1997. Cytokine-mediated antimicrobial immune response of catfish, Clarias gariepinus, as a defence against Aeromonas hydrophila. Fish. Shellfish. Immunol., 7(2): 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1006/fsim.1996.0066. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/fsim.1996.0066