The Journal of Agricultural Engineering (India) is a peer-reviewed Journal and publishes interdisciplinary basic and applied research manuscripts of engineering and technology to address the problems of agricultural, food, and biological systems. The journal publishes papers of both theoretical and applied nature, with a special focus on experimental research, new design criteria, mathematical modelling and innovative approaches relating to all fields of agricultural engineering and technology. This journal uses double-blind review process. The Journal of Agricultural Engineering (India) is not an open-access journal, but a subscription based journal. Journal doesn't charge article processing charges (APC), article submission fees, or surcharges based on the length of an article, colour illustrations, or supplementary data. To attract and publish many high-quality papers, the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers instituted the Best Paper Award and the Best Reviewer Award. These awards are announced annually in the Annual Convention of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers.
Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers
Mathematical Modelling and Techno-economic Evaluation of Hybrid Photovoltaic-thermal Forced Convection Solar Drying of Indian Jujube (Zizyphus mauritiana)
Two identical units of a hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) solar dryer designed and constructed at ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, were used to dry Indian jujube (Zizyphus mauritiana) fruit, one operated under natural and the other under forced convection modes. The fruits were dried to safe moisture content (24 %) in a period of 192 h in forced convection mode, and in 240 h in natural convection mode with drying load of 18 kg. There was a significant difference in performance of the dryer under forced and natural convection mode. The average thermal efficiency of solar energy utilization under forced convection mode was higher (16.7 %) than that of natural convection solar dryer (15.6 %). Logarithmic drying model was suitable for describing the thin layer drying behaviour of the fruit. Effective moisture diffusivity of forced convection dryer was 3.34 × 10-7 m2.s-1. Economic evaluation of the solar dryer indicated high value of IRR (54.5 %), and low value of payback period (2.26 years), suggesting the dryer to be cost efficient.
Copyright (c) 2019 Journal of Agricultural Engineering
A Comparative Study on Water Productivity of Rice under Different Cultivation Practices
Rice production in India needs to be increased to meet the future food demand of the ever- growing population and under the constraints of land, water, climate and other socio-environmental factors. Rice is the staple food in India, and needs maximum water among cereal crops. Improved rice cultivation practices (RCP) such as System of Rice Intensification (SRI), Alternate Wetting Drying (AWD), Bund Plugging (BP) and Raised Bed (RB) could potentially increase the water productivity over conventional (CON) rice cultivation practice. Field studies were conducted to estimate water productivity (WP) of these improved rice cultivation practices at Kharagpur during the kharif season of 2014 and 2015. Highest grain yield was recorded in SRI practice (5.57-5.60 t.ha-1) among all RCPs. Bund plugging practice showed the highest WP and statistically similar yield to SRI. Maximum irrigation water saving could be made with BP (44.8-60.1 %) among other RCPs, as compared to the conventional practice. It was concluded that BP is the best management practice with highest water productivity, irrigation water saving and commendable yield.
Temporal Land-use Change Analysis of Patiala-Ki-Rao Watershed in Shivalik Foot-Hills using Remote Sensing and GIS
Land-use change due to urbanization is continuously decreasing agricultural and forest lands that has important implications on the sustainable livelihood of the inhabitants of a watershed. In this study, land-use maps of Patiala-Ki-Rao watershed that is located in Shivalik foot-hills in Mohali district, Punjab were generated in GIS environment using Landsat imageries for the years 2006 and 2016 with overall classification accuracy and Kappa statistic of above 90 % and 0.9, respectively. The analysis of land-use maps indicated that the area under all land-uses decreased over a decade, except built-up land that increased by 372.27 ha (112.04 %) mainly due to urbanisation in the watershed. The change detection matrix revealed that out of 906.98 ha under agricultural land in 2006, 197.43 ha were mainly converted to built-up land. Likewise, from forest cover of 3462.21 ha in 2006, 151.11 ha were converted to agricultural land and 75.05 ha to built-up land. These land-use changes, if continued, may cause a serious threat to watershed resources, and hence calls for proper land-use policy formulation.
Generation of Synthetic Streamflow of Jakham River, Rajasthan Using Thomas-Fiering Model
A study was undertaken to develop and apply Thomas-Fiering (T-F) model for generation of synthetic streamflow of Jakham river, Rajasthan. Streamflow data of 40 years (June,1975 to May, 2015) was used, of which 360 month-data (June,1975 to May, 2005) were used to develop the model and 120 month-data (June, 2005 to May, 2015) were used to predict the streamflow. Performance of the model was evaluated using four statistical criteria, viz. correlation coefficient (R), root mean square error (RMSE), modified Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (MNSE), and modified index of agreement (MIA).The results showed satisfactory performance of the model in generating synthetic monthly streamflow based on R, RMSE, MNSE and MIA values of 0.73, 28.47×106 m3, 0.456 and 0.73, respectively. The developed model was used to generate 100-year synthetic streamflows.
Effect of Hydrothermal Treatment and Milling Parameters on Milling and Nutritional Qualities of Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana)
The conditions for degree of pearling of finger millets were optimised based on its quality attributes. Empirical models were developed to predict quality parameters for different sets of milling conditions of dispersed density (430 kg.m-3, 495 kg.m-3, 560 kg.m-3), residence time (10 min, 12 min, 14 min) and roller speed (1000 rpm, 1200 rpm, 1400 rpm) for both untreated and hydrothermally treated finger millet. It was found that hydrothermal treatment could improve pearling efficiency and reduce anti-nutrients while retaining nutritional components to some extent. A model correlating the effect of degree of pearling with pearling efficiency, protein, tannin and calcium content of hydrothermally treated finger millets was also developed with a satisfactory level of accuracy (R2 = 0.997). This equation served to determine the required degree of pearling for any given set of milling conditions. At optimized quality parameters, the degree of pearling for finger millet was 7.4 per cent.
Microwave Assisted De-husking of Foxtail Millet
A study was conducted to determine the effect of microwave pre-treatment on de-husking characteristics and quality parameters of foxtail millet. Foxtail millet was treated at three microwave power levels (900 W, 720 W and 540 W) for three different exposure time (120 s, 100 s and 80 s). Increase in grain surface temperature from 64.68ËšC to 81.66ËšC and decrease in de-husking time from 191 s to 88 s were observed with increase in microwave power level and exposure time. De-husking yield increased initially with increase in microwave power and exposure time, reaching a maximum of 85.64 % (720 W, 120 s), and thereafter decreased. The lowest de-husking yield of 72.12 % was observed at 900 W and 100 s exposure time. The increase in broken content from 0.20 % to 19.61 %, and reduction in head yield from 99.80 % to 85.40 % was observed with increase in microwave power and exposure time. The colour change was not significant (@ pâ‰¤0.05) in all the treatments. Cooking time of the de-husked grain decreased with increase in microwave power level and exposure time from 544 s to 442 s. De-husking yield of 91.97 % was predicted at optimal conditions of 732 W microwave power and 80 s exposure time.
Modelling of Rheological Properties of Mango (cv. Neelum) Suspensions: Effect of Sample Concentration and Particle Size
Evaluation of rheological properties of reconstituted mango peel powder (MPP) cv. Neelum at different particle sizes and sample concentrations was investigated. The combined effect of sample (MPP: water) concentration (1:4, 1:5, 1:6) and particle size obtained from sieve openings (420 μm, 355 μm, 250 μm and 125 μm) were evaluated on the rheological parameters (yield stress, flow behaviour index and consistency index). Lightness (L) and yellowness (b) increased while greenness (a) decreased with reduction in particle size. The increase in sample concentration was associated with increase in shear stress values.Rheological characterization was performed on the basis of coefficient of determination (R2) and other model parameters. For the samples (particle size of 250μm and 125μm), the Herschel-Bulkey model (R2≥0.831), Power law (R2≥0.803) and Casson law (R2≥0.832) fitted well to shear stress-shear rate data.
Performance Evaluation of IARI Wheat Seed-cum-Fertilizer Plot Drill for Pearl Millet-Wheat Cropping System on Permanent Raised Bed System
A four-row IARI seed-cum-fertilizer plot drill developed at ICAR-IARI, New Delhi for permanent raised bed system was evaluated under pearl millet-wheat cropping system. The machine was fitted with two Oyjord metering mechanisms with four outlets for metering seed and fertilizer. Successful seeding on raised beds with pearl millet crop residue was achieved by first cutting the plant residue with a plain disc coulter, followed by seed drilling in narrow slit furrows opened by double disk furrow openers. The plot drill required 33.56 kW tractor for its operation in sandy loam soils, and two operators to feed measured quantity of seed and fertilizer. Field capacity of the plot drill was 0.17 ha.h-1 at 1.5 km.h-1 forward speed of operation. Field machine index, field efficiency and cost of operation were 72.72, 80 % and ` 648/- per hour, respectively. The plant stands of wheat sown on permanent raised beds with the developed plot drill were significantly higher than with precision plot drill.
Development of Low-cost Detachable Roof Greenhouse for Round the Year Cultivation of Tomato and Capsicum
Greenhouse is a well-established technology for crop cultivation or nursery growing under controlled, or partially controlled, condition. The major hindrance in its widespread adoption is construction cost and environment management. A low-cost detachable roof greenhouse was developed for round-the-year cultivation of tomato/capsicum. The temperature under the greenhouse during winter season (November-February) was 1-3 0C higher than at open field condition due to greenhouse effect. The temperature during summer season (March-June) in the greenhouse was between 5-46 0C, and was lower than the temperature (6-49 0C) under open field condition. During rainy season (July-October), the temperature recorded were 9-38 0C and 12-41 0C, respectively, under greenhouse and open field condition. The light intensity and relative humidity in the greenhouse varied between 0.7-53.2 klux and 14-96 %, respectively.
Textural and Sensory Characteristics of Hot Air-dried Tofu
Some rehydration, textural and sensory characteristics of tofu dried at 45°C, 60°C and 75°C were studied. Rehydration ratio and coefficient of rehydration were found to vary from 1.39 to 1.49, and 0.67 to 0.93, respectively. Hardness and adhesiveness were found to decrease from 5077.34 g to 3939.95 g and (-) 4.47 to (-)39.71g.s, while springiness and chewiness increased from 0.14 to 0.22 and 647.60 to 820.77, respectively, with increase in drying temperature. L values increased with temperature from 48.04 to 53.55. Sensory characteristics of tofu dried at 75°C obtained from a consumer panel showed acceptability of the product.
Sorption Study on Developed Low-cost Solid Desiccant Material for Solar Dryer
A study was attempted to develop a solar regenerative Bentonite - CaCl2 based solid desiccant material, and examine it's moisture sorption performance and regeneration characteristics. The desiccant was developed from 60 % bentonite, 20 % vermiculite, 10 % CaCl2 and 10 % cement. Regeneration studies on the desiccant were carried out for moisture adsorption at 30 °C and 96 % R.H. for 144 h; and moisture desorption at 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C and 80 °C for 8 h. Regeneration temperature and time significantly affected the moisture sorption and desorption of the solid desiccant, and their combined impact was meaningful (p ≤ 0.05). Maximum adsorption capacity of the desiccant was 35.12 % (d.b.), and was efficiently regenerated by solar energy.
Application of Linear Programming to Maximize Net Return by Allocating Land under Different Crops in Bhagwanpur Distributary
Agriculture in India is gradually tending to be less interesting and lucrative profession due to high risks and less reliability. In order to increase net return from agriculture, proper planning and consideration of prevailing constraints is essential. Bhagwanpur distributary command area-based problem, consisting of maximization of net return with available land, water, labour, energy and other affinity constraints was formulated and solved employing modified Simplex method of linear programming. The area allocated under different crops, land productivity and water productivity for various combinations of canal water and ground water use were computed. When more area was allocated under remunerative crops like maize and potato with 100 % tube well water and canal water use by the crops, maximum net return of `2.31× 108 could be obtained. Maximum land productivity for the command area, was 63826 `.ha-1 when 85 % canal water and 100 % ground water were used by the crops in total area of 3426.9 ha; while maximum water productivity of 25.66 `.m-3 was obtained when 100 % canal water and ground water were used. The results may be useful in suggesting farmers on allocation of their agricultural land under profitable interventions to maximize net return, water productivity and land productivity.
Engineering Properties of Rice-bean Varieties from North-East India
Rice-bean (Vignaumbellata) is a non-conventional, under utilized and multipurpose crop of South and South-East Asia. Eleven rice-bean varieties were studied for their colour, bean area, bean volume, sphericity, bulk density, true density, porosity, angle of repose, static coefficient of friction, and thermal transitions. Beans of variety JCR-08-10 had dark (L: 20.96±1.00), trifling red (a: 0.42±0.1) and minute blue (b: -0.69 ± 0.13) in colour. The length, width and thickness of all varieties ranged from 6.52 - 8.44 mm, 3.87 - 5.28 mm and 3.14 - 4.35 mm, respectively. The sphericity, bean volume and bean surface area of these varieties were between 63.02 - 69.9 %, 30.94 - 70.92 mm3, and 51.09 - 87.73 mm2, respectively. The thousand-bean mass, bulk density, true density, porosity, angle of repose of rice-bean varieties were 57.64 - 118.72 g, 820 – 877 kg.m-3, 1138.40 – 1388.79 kg.m-3, 26.47 – 40.57 %, 9.57-21.40º, respectively. The varieties JCR-08-8, JCR-08-12, JCR-08-15 had comparatively higher bulk density than other varieties. The static coefficients of friction for glass, stainless steel and aluminium were 0.29 - 0.37, 0.38 - 0.45, and 0.35 - 0.55, respectively. Differential scanning calorimetry thermograms revealed that JCR-08-8, JCR-08-12 and JCR-50 had highest melting temperature ranging between 121.73 oC and 155.45 oC.
Development of Extruded Snacks Using Maize, Soy, Apple Pomace - A Response Surface Methodology Approach
Response surface methodology (RSM) using a D-optimal mixture design was employed for optimisation of formulation for production of a maize-soy-apple pomace based extruded snack. Effects of ingredients levels as maize (50–70 %), defatted soy flour (10–30 %) and apple pomace (10–30 %) on the physical properties like bulk density, expansion ratio, colour, water absorption index and water solubility index, sensory and specific mechanical energy of snacks were investigated. Significant regression equations that explained the effects of different percentages of maize, soy and apple pomace on all response variables were determined. The coefficients of determination, R2, of all response variables were higher than 0.90. Adequate precision for developed model of all responses was higher than 9.0, and corresponding CV was less than 1.9 per cent. Based on the given criteria for optimisation, the basic formulation for production of maize-soy-apple pomace extruded snack with desired sensory quality was obtained by incorporating with 70.0 % maize, 14.57 % soy and 15.43 % apple pomace.
Effect of Electro-spark Coating on Wear Loss of Rotavator Blades
Rotavator has been increasingly used in agricultural fields. Under abrasive conditions for ground engaging tools, rotavator blades require frequent replacement resulting to increasing machine downtime and maintenance cost. Electric spark coating (ESC) technique was evaluated on two different commercially available blades with tungsten carbide, Stellite-21 and chromium carbide coating materials to improve their life. Coating materials were applied with three different thicknesses on the blades.Wear loss of the second blade with tungsten carbide 4th mode treatment was about 0.80 % per hour less than the other treatments for both blades. Hardness (58.33 HRA) of the second blade with chromium carbide 4th mode treatment was highest among all treatments and blades. The build-up height with chromium carbide 6th mode treatment was 160.8 μm.
Performance Evaluation of Tractor Operated Rotary Assisted Broad Bed Former-cum-seeder for Wheat Sowing
Tillage practices influence the soil physical parameters, which consequently affect the yield of a crop and provide solution against environmental hazards. A study was undertaken to comprehend the effects of broad bed former-cum-seeder on crop parameters, grain and biomass yield, cost-economics and energetics of operation. Simultaneous operation of tractor operated rotary-assisted broad bed former-cum-seeder, developed at ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, was compared with sequential operation of conventional seed drill on broad beds and rotary tilling on flatbed in black cotton soil for wheat cultivation. Though higher germination of seeds (183 per m2) was observed with simultaneous operation of bed making and seeding by rotary-assisted broad bed former-cum-seeder, but the differences in yield among treatments were insignificant. The input energy requirement in first crop year (17,710 MJ.ha-1) was marginally higher than that in conventional method (17,445 MJ.ha-1). It decreased by 378 MJ.ha-1 compared to conventional system in the second crop year. The lowest average cost of operation (2607 ` ha-1) in simultaneous operation of bed forming and seeding in the first year, followed by maintaining permanent beds in subsequent years led to an additional income of 13,980 ` ha-1 over farmers’ practice. Rotary-assisted broad bed former-cum-seeder thus has the potential to boost the income of the farmers and better energy management.
Impact of Morphometric Parameters and Change in Land Use on Peak Runoff Rates of Pingalgarh Watershed Using Geospatial Techniques
Morphometric analysis of Pingalgarh watershed in Maharashtra state was carried out using remote sensing and GIS techniques for 1977 and 2016. Detailed drainage map was prepared from LISS-IV high resolution satellite image of 20th November 2016 to assess the present situation and from Geo-referenced toposheet on 1:50,000 scale for the year 1977 to bring out the past condition. These maps were used for morphometric analysis and also for runoff estimation. Low drainage density values indicated that the area was underlain by moderately impermeable sub-surface material. Circularity and elongation ratio showed that the watershed had elongated shape. Due to change in land use, the total stream length in the watershed had reduced. The low to moderate value of basin relief indicated gravity of water flow, moderate infiltration and runoff condition of the study area. The length of overland flow indicating the long flow path with moderate ground slope, reflecting the areas associated with moderate runoff and infiltration. Low values of relief are the characteristic features of less resistant rocks of the area. Due to change in land use and cropping pattern over a period of time, the time of concentration was reduced in the later stage resulting in increase in peak runoff rate.
Copyright (c) 2018 Journal of Agricultural Engineering
Spatio-temporal Variation of Hydrological Drought in the Indo-Gangetic Plains
The Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) encompass a large alluvial track consisting of multi-tier aquifer system. Due to stride developmental activities and intensification of agriculture with higher irrigation water requirement, shallow groundwater regime is getting depleted causing hydrological drought. Spatio-temporal variation of seasonal drought pattern and drought severity in the IGP region was analysed for the period of 2005-2009, using Standardized water level index (SWI) with topo to raster methods of interpolation in geographic information system (GIS). Analysis of hydrological drought indicated that 40-60 % area in the IGP was affected by mild hydrological drought, whereas 2-7 % of the area was affected by extreme hydrological drought because of excessive and indiscriminate groundwater pumping leading to decline in groundwater level. SWI categories were correlated with the irrigation activity for better irrigation planning. Irrigation planning for the IGP was suggested for different SWI drought categories.
Studies on Engineering Properties of Selected Natural Exudate Gums
Selected engineering properties as colour parameters, moisture content, bulk density, true density, porosity, angle of repose and angle of internal friction of different exudate gums obtained from selected tree species were determined. Lightness, redness and yellowness values of exudate gums ranged from 22.66 – 49.58, 2.66 – 7.16 and 5.32 – 18.43, respectively. Moisture content, bulk density, true density, porosity and angle of repose of exudate gums ranged from 9.25 – 20.39 %, 592.5 – 792.78 kg.m-3, 1106.67 – 1430 kg.m-3, 36.75 – 49.81 % and 30.00 – 45.000, respectively. Angle of internal friction ranged from 24.520 to 29.050 for wood, 25.300 to 28.260 for glass, 25.020 to 29.280 for steel, 25.120 to 28.990 for galvanized iron, 25.450 to 27.860 for aluminium, 25.160 to 29.930 for mild steel, 26.450 to 28.580 for plywood, 24.970 to 27.990 for fibre, 24.980 to 27.440 for plastic and 20.980 to 27.970 for white board surfaces, respectively. Values of engineering properties determined under the study can be used as references in design of gum handling and processing machineries.
Development of Sweet Lime (Citrus Limetta Risso) Pomace Integrated Ricebased Extruded Product: Process Optimization
Sweet lime is rich in nutrients, but has high waste index. In the present study, efforts were delineated on development of third generation rice-based snacks integrated with pulse powder and sweet lime pomace through extrusion. Optimization of the extrusion process was done by response surface methodology for achieving the maximum possible expansion ratio, water absorption index, water solubility index, crude fibre, antioxidant capacity, protein content, overall acceptability; and simultaneously minimum bulk density, hardness and in range colour change. The developed snack had excellent nutritional, physical and sensory attributes and depicted a scintillating prospect for commercial development. The optimum values of process parameters, using RSM were: 70 % rice proportion (along with 15 % pulse powder and 15 % sweet lime pomace powder) with 12 % feed moisture content, 300 rpm screw speed and 137°C die temperature. The overall desirability was 0.62 for extruded product when optimized by RSM.
Gasification Prospective of Compressed Industrial Tea (Camellia sinensis) Waste using Fixed Bed Downdraft Gasifier
India is the second largest producer of tea in the world. Assam contributes 53 % of total plantation area and 54 % of total production of the country. Large quantity of waste is generated from tea processing which has negligible economic value. Industrial tea waste was collected from a nearby tea industry and converted into briquette after mixing with binding material. Briquette’s characteristics prepared from industrial tea waste (ITW) was found good for gasification. The calorific value of ITW was measured as 18.01 MJ.kg-1. Gasification was carried out at air flow rates of 25.32, 31.65, 34.08, and 42.96 Nm3.h-1 at four inlet settings of the blower. The producer gas composition (CO = 18.7 % and H2 =15.5 %) was highest at 31.65 Nm3.h-1 air flow rate. Maximum combustible gas discharge was 0.78 Nm3.kg-1 at air flow of 31.65 Nm3.h-1 and feed rate of 14.30 kg.h-1. Measured and estimated calorific value of the producer gas was 4.10 and 4.63 MJ.Nm-3, respectively, with 54.55 % gasification efficiency. It was concluded that ITW has good gasification potential, and may be utilised by the tea industry for partial independence from use of conventional sources of energy.
Assessment of Loose Residue Entanglement in Various Patterns of Furrow Opener Arrangement
Poor residue handling capability of no-till drills in combine harvested rice and wheat fields during sowing of wheat in rabi and pulses in kharif is a major barrier for their extensive use. The problem aggravates more due to lesser inter-spacing between furrow openers and their arrangements on only two toolbars. A study was conducted to assess the effect of furrow opener arrangements on residue accumulation on a test setup with three toolbars and seven inverted-T type furrow openers. Six patterns of furrow opener arrangements were evaluated in combine harvested wheat field. Furrow openers in V-type arrangement of 2, 2 and 3 on front, middle and rear toolbar, respectively, (Arrangement-B) was the best in terms of residue entanglement and accumulation of 121 g.m-1 length. No residue accumulation was observed when the setup was operated under chopped residue condition with same arrangement. Residue flow percentage was 100% for this arrangement. The result suggested arranging the furrow openers on three toolbars with wider furrow opener spacing to minimize the residue accumulation while drilling pulse crops under no-till residue condition after wheat harvesting.
Effect of Roasting Method on Physico-Mechanical and Roasting Characteristics of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
Chickpea grains were roasted by traditional sand roasting (180, 200 and 220ºC) and microwave roasting (450 W, 600 W and 900 W) for 5, 10 and 15 min. The effects of roasting method and their parameters on physico-mechanical and roasting characteristics were determined. Roasting led to an increase in size, sphericity, angle of repose, porosity and puffing index of chickpea. Significant (p<0.05) reduction in fracture force and coefficient of friction was observed. True density decreased with roasting and the lowest value of 787.87 kg.m-3 was observed on sand roasting at 180°C for 15 min. The highest value of puffing index (179.87 %) and length/width ratio (155.04 %) was observed for sand roasting at 220ºC for 15 min and 5 min, respectively. The force required for rupture of chickpea reduced with roasting, and the lowest value (32.28 N) was observed during sand roasting at 220ºC for 10 min. The optimum roasting condition identified for sand and microwave roasting to obtain higher puffing index, lower hardness and rupture energy was observed to be 220 ºC for 10 min and 600 W for 15 min, respectively.
Soil Bin Studies on Plug and Finger-type Onion Seedling Transplanting Mechanisms
A study was conducted to develop a plug- and finger-type onion seedling transplanting mechanisms in a soil bin and examine the effects of age of seedling and machine parameters (speed of operation, height of seedling drop, finger material) on plant spacing, planting depth, successful transplanting, furrow closure, filling efficiency and plant damage. Plant spacing ranged from 121.4 mm to 133.5 mm using plug metering mechanism, while it was 167.9 mm to 195.0 mm with finger-type metering mechanism. The percent seedling transplanted and percent furrow closure with plug mechanism varied from 76.67 % to 100 % and 73.33 % to 100 %, respectively; and in finger-type metering mechanism they ranged from 18.33 % to 78.33 % and 15 % to 73.33 %, respectively. Plug filling efficiency ranged from 96.67 % to 32.22 % with plug mechanism, and 95.28 % to 22.5 % with finger metering mechanism. Percent seedling damage with plug mechanism ranged from 0 % to 17.54 %, and was lower than 0 % to 31.05 % caused by finger-type metering mechanism. The performance of plug-type metering mechanism for onion seedling was closer to the recommended practices as compared to finger-type metering mechanism.
Mechanized Planting of Carrot Seeds on Beds
Tractor operated inclined plate bed planter with total width of 2300 mm was used to plant carrot seed. Field trials on sowing of carrot seed were conducted using broadcasting, ridge and mechanical bed planting methods. Field capacity of mechanical method of planting was higher (0.5 ha.h-1) as compared to 0.25 ha.h-1 and 0.02 ha.h-1 with the broadcasting and ridge methods, respectively. Seed rate requirement using machine was 6.9 kg.ha-1 as compared to 18.75 kg.ha-1 with broadcasting. The plant population of mechanical planting was higher (5.25x105 ha-1) as compared to 4.0x105 ha-1 and 4.38x105 ha-1 by ridge and broadcasting methods, respectively. Root weight/yield of crop planted with machine was significantly higher (69.3 t.ha-1) as compared to 51.75 t.ha-1 and 48.38 t.ha-1 obtained by ridge and broadcasting methods, respectively. Total planting cost of mechanical planting was lesser (4578 Rupees.ha-1) as compared to 11218 Rupees .ha-1 and 38828 Rupees.ha-1 with broadcasting and ridge methods, respectively. Total cost saving with carrot planter was 56 % and 87%, respectively, as compared to broadcasting and ridge planting methods. Break even point of carrot planter was 50 ha.yr-1 with payback period of 50 ha use of the planter.
Impacts of Climate Change on Stream Flow in the Gomti River Basin of India
Potential impacts of climate change on streamflow in the Gomti River basin of India were studied using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The model was calibrated and validated using monthly streamflow data of four gauging stations of the basin. Climate change scenarios were developed using spatially downscaled (0.5×0.5°) MIROC3.2 (HiRes) GCM data for A2, A1b and B1 emission scenarios. The analysis showed that annual rainfall is likely to increase by 10 % to 18 %, 15 % to 24 %, and 19 % to 26 % during the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s, respectively. Mean annual stream-flows were projected to increase by 15 % to 38 %, 25 % to 44 % and 40 % to 55 % during the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s, respectively. Simulation results also indicated spatial and temporal variability in stream-flow in the basin, indicating the need for location-specific adaptation measure for planning of water use in the basin. The findings of the study could be useful for planning and managing water resources in the Gomti river basin for adaptation to climate change.
Development of Motorized Walnut Dehuller
Most of walnut production is manually hulled in India. Green walnut is processed in dry condition by removing the outer shell. Removing of outer shell of walnut with a knife by hand is difficult at a low production rate of 0.025- 0.030 t.h-1. A motorized walnut dehuller based on the principle of shearing-off the hull of a green walnut by shearing force was developed and evaluated, with peripheral speed and number of heaping days being optimized to make the best quality of hulling process. Results indicated that the effective throughput capacity, hulling efficiency and fully hulled walnut percentage increased with increase in peripheral speed. Similarly, hulling efficiency increased with increase in number of heaping days before hulling, but the fruit shell staining and kernel discoloration took place with increase in the number of heaping days after harvest. At peripheral speed of 6.41 m.s-1 and 4-day heaping period, the hulling capacity of the developed machine was 0.260 t.h-1 with hulling efficiency of 79.55 per cent.
Characterization of Attributes in Dehusked Coconut
Selected physical properties of dehusked coconut as length, width, thickness, geometric mean diameter, sphericity, surface area, bulk density and true density were investigated. Compositional changes in coconut fruits, including volume and weight, shell weight, weight of mature coconut water, wet and dry flesh weight, thickness of the flesh and shell were also evaluated. The average fruit length, major diameter and minor diameter were 99.2±13.3 mm, 91.5±8.9 mm, and 89.5±8.7 mm, respectively; while the sphericity, true density, bulk density and surface area were 0.90±0.05, 998±68.8 kg.m-3, 483±37.3 kg.m-3 and 274.2±50.4 cm2, respectively. The frequency distribution of the major diameter and the fruit mass followed the Gaussian model. Correlations between fruit characteristics were also determined. Results indicated that fruit weight and total wet flesh weight were closely correlated, and both of these characteristics can be used as an indicator of fruit size.
Effect of Ohmic Heating on Quality and Recovery of Oil from Mustard Seed
The effects of process parameters on ohmic heating (electric field strength of 600 V.m-1, 750 V.m-1 and 900 V.m-1), end point temperature (70 ºC, 80 ºC and 90 ºC) and holding time (5 min, 10 min and 15 min) were investigated on oil recovery from mustard seeds using laboratory model ohmic heating system. Primary quality attributes viz. free fatty acids and colour value of oil from ohmically treated mustard seeds was determined using standard methods. The maximum oil recovery (84.90 %) was obtained when the sample was heated at 90 oC using electric field strength of 750 V.m-1 for a holding time of 15 min. The free fatty acid (1.11 % to 1.27 %) in the oil samples was within the acceptable limit (0.5-3.0 %). The L value of oil extracted from ohmic heated mustard seeds ranged from 40.32 to 40.87 as against 40.71 of control sample.
Draft Prediction of Commonly Used Tillage Implements for Sandy Clay Loam Soil in India
Draft requirements for prototypes of mouldboard plough, cultivator and offset disc harrow with different widths of cut or number of tools were measured at four levels of depth and four levels of forward speed in three soil compaction levels in a soil bin with sandy clay loam soil at an average soil moisture content of 9.58% (d.b.). Effect of depth was more significant on draft of mouldboard plough and offset disc harrow, whereas number of tynes was the most significant factor for cultivator. Rate of increase of draft with respect to depth was higher as compared to forward speed, cone index and width of cut for all implements tested. Draft values predicted by ASABE model were compared with those obtained from soil bin tests at three compaction levels. Quite often, the measured draft values were found to be about 2.9, 1.7 and 1.65 times more than the ASABE predicted values for mouldboard plough, cultivator and offset disk harrow, respectively. An equation similar to the ASABE model incorporating cone index was developed using stepwise regression analyses to model the draft of tillage implements for the range of soil and operating condition tested. Field tests with commercial models of these implements were conducted to acquire data for draft by developing appropriate instrumentation to validate the developed draft equation. The average absolute variations between the predicted and measured values of draft were within 5.5 % and 11.6% for all the implements tested, and thus validated the developed draft prediction equation.