The Journal regularly publishes refereed research articles, reviews, research notes and short communications of high impact in basic and applied research, development and management issues on soil and water conservation as well as watershed management and policy aspects of agriculture and rural development. Comprehensive review articles in the area of soil and water conservation and management, case studies and success stories are also published in the Journal.
On publication in JSWC, the copyrights on the full contents of the paper will be of Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi.
Halotolerant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria from rice and wheat in sodic soils: Characterization for their potential to alleviate salt stress
Soil salinity and alkalinity present critical constraints to agricultural productivity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. This study characterized the rhizospheric microbial communities and isolated halotolerant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (HT-PGPR) from rice (Oryza sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivated in sodic soils with variable salinity levels. Soil physicochemical and biochemical analyses revealed significant correlations between soil sodium content and microbial activity parameters. Serial dilution and selective media techniques identified bacterial and fungal populations with varying tolerance to sodium chloride (0.5-5%), sodium carbonate (1-2.5%), and sodium bicarbonate (1-2.5%) concentrations. Rice rhizosphere exhibited higher bacterial populations (19.1-38.3 × 104 cfu/g) compared to wheat (10.5-65.2 × 104 cfu/g), while wheat showed increased fungal diversity (17.5-80.5 × 103 MPN/g). Among the isolates, 30-40% demonstrated tolerance to 5% NaCl, indicating potential as HT-PGPR candidates for biofortification and saline soil amelioration. Microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen showed positive associations with soil enzyme activities, particularly dehydrogenase (14.25- 25.34 μg TPF/g/day) and alkaline phosphatase (9.7-15.6 μg PNP/g/day) in rice. These findings suggest that selected halotolerant isolates possess multifunctional traits including salt tolerance and potential nutrient-solubilizing capacity, making them promising candidates for biofertilizer development and sustainable agriculture in salt-affected regions.
Copyright (c) 2026 Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi
Impact of Cob rind biochar on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties under finger millet cultivation
A field experiment was conducted at the PG Research Centre, Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station, Bavikere, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences (UAHS), Shivamogga during kharif 2019 to evaluate the effect of cob rind biochar applied alone and in combination with farmyard manure (FYM) on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties under finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) cultivation. The study included ten treatments consisting of cob rind biochar at 2 and 4 t ha- 1 combined with 75% and 100% recommended FYM, along with recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) and an absolute control. Results showed that the integrated application of biochar and FYM significantly improved soil properties compared with biochar alone or RDF + FYM. The treatment receiving cob rind biochar @ 4 t ha- 1 + 100% recommended FYM (T8) performed best. It recorded the lowest bulk density (1.29 Mg m- 3), highest porosity (33.65%), and maximum water holding capacity (38.13%). Soil chemical properties also improved with increased pH, electrical conductivity, and soil organic carbon. Higher availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulphur was observed in T8 compared with RDF + FYM and control. Micronutrient availability (Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu) also increased with the combined application of cob rind biochar and FYM. Biological activity improved with higher microbial populations and greater enzyme activities such as dehydrogenase, phosphatase, and urease. Overall, the combined application of cob rind biochar (4 t ha- 1) and 100% FYM effectively improved soil health and fertility in finger millet cultivation
Effect of long-term fertilizer application on soil aggregation and SOC stocks in semi-arid Alfisols of South India
A field experiment was initiated during kharif 1981 to study the long-term effects of fertilizers and manures application on soil aggregation and carbon sequestration in a rainfed Alfisols (Typic Haplustalfs) under groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) monocropping system at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India. After 42 years of experimentation, NPK+lime@100 kg ha-1 treatment showed significant (p≤0.01) improvement in macro-aggregates (5-2mm) (8.0per cent), mean weight diameter (MWD) (0.81 mm), geometric mean diameter (GMD) (0.47 mm) compared to all other treatments under study. However, FYM @ 5 Mg ha-1 and P @ 20 kg ha-1treatments showed higher aggregate stability (AS) (1.66 and 1.65) and per cent water stable aggregates (%WSA) e” 0.25 mm (62.5 and 61.8per cent) compared to other treatments. Whereas, N or K fertilizers alone deteriorated the soil structure by decreasing MWD, AS and %WSA by 10-12, 22-26 and 11-15per cent, respectively compared to untreated control. Significantly higher soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks were recorded in NPK + lime@100 kg ha-1 treatment (11.2 Mg ha-1), representing a 250 per cent increase over initial SOC stocks (3.2 Mg ha-1). In contrast, the lowest SOC stocks (8.6 Mg ha-1) were recorded in the control treatment. (Similarly, the higher SOC stock build- up over control and build-up rate were also recorded in NPK + lime@100 kg ha-1 treatment (30.5 per cent & 68 kg ha-1 year-1) whereas the lowest build-up % was recorded under K @ 25 kg ha-1 alone applied treatment (3.63 per cent) compared to control. The present study demonstrates that the application of NPK+lime@100 kg ha-1 is the best nutrient management strategy for enhancing soil aggregation and SOC stocks in rainfed Alfisols.
Interactive effects of coloured mulches on soil thermal regime, plant growth and yield of tomato under protected and open condition
This study was conducted to evaluate the impact of different coloured mulches on soil temperature and yield parameters of tomato crop in open and polyhouse conditions. In this study four different mulch treatments were used as: T1 (Black+Black), T2 (Silver+Black), T3 (Black+Silver) and T4 (without mulch). The highest soil temperature was found in treatment T1 and the lowest temperature value was found in T4 in both polyhouse and open field condition. In treatment T1 the average soil temperature was found 3.9° higher than T4 under polyhouse condition and 3.4° higher in T1 treatment than T4 under open field conditions, respectively. The overall average temperature in T1, T2, T3 and T4 was found to be 22.70, 20.80, 21.78 and 18.70, respectively in polyhouse conditions and 21.50, 19.56, 20.49 and 18.04 under open field conditions, respectively. The fruit yield per plot was found to be higher in treatment T2 as 168kg, followed by treatment T3 as 137kg, T1 as 122kg and lowest value in T4 as 79kg under polyhouse conditions. Similar trend was observed under open field with highest value in treatment T2 as 111kg, followed by T3 as 101kg, T1 as 95kg and lowest value in T4 as 54kg. Thus, mulching helps in regulating the soil temperatures which leads to better yield and early production of crop. The result revealed that silver mulch results in significantly better yield in comparison to black mulch, it improves light reflection and enhances photosynthesis of crop.
Design and validation of an IoT-enabled soil moisture sensor for precision agriculture
The research paper describe the soil moisture sensor in accordance with the field conditions and the capacity to measure soil moisture on a real-time basis. In this study, the Arduino-based soil moisture sensors with Copper-Based Probe (CBP) are introduced, which fit best with the conventional method for measuring soil moisture. The paper also presents a low-cost design, laboratory calibration, and field validation of an IoT-enabled resistive soil moisture sensor. The developed soil moisture sensor consists of a microcontroller ATmega328p, a resistive soil probe, an OLED display, a GPS, and LoRa WAN data transmission module integrated with IoT technology. The sensor was calibrated using a gravimetric method with nine steps of soil moisture content ranging from 0% to 40% in a clay-loam soil type. The laboratory calibration revealed linear equations in which ADC (-) 2.067, moisture (+) 1029.40, and voltage (-) 0.10083, Moisture (+) 5.020, with an R2 value equal to 0.9996. Residual values of linear and quadratic equations are within (±) 0.15% and (±) 0.14%, respectively. For embedded irrigation systems, linear equations are sufficient and efficient, as quadratic equations are of little use. Thus, the developed soil moisture sensor shows satisfactory results in laboratory conditions. Preliminary field evaluation showed close agreement with gravimetric measurements, with deviations within (±) 1.2%, indicating promising field applicability. The developed IoT-enabled soil moisture sensor has great potential to play a vital role in data-driven irrigation management, to enhance resource use efficiency in precision agriculture.
Spatial variability of saturated hydraulic conductivity in selected ponds of the Rohilkhand region, Uttar Pradesh, India
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) is a fundamental parameter controlling infiltration, seepage, and groundwater recharge in pond ecosystems. This study assessed the spatial variability of Ks in thirteen selected ponds of the Rohilkhand region, Uttar Pradesh, India, using the Inverse Auger Hole Method at three locations within each pond. Measured Ks values ranged from 0.06 to 7.55 cm h- 1, indicating substantial spatial variability, with the highest value recorded at Tumadiya pond and the lowest at Changgeri pond. Mean Ks values varied between 0.32 and 2.95 cm h- 1. Descriptive statistics revealed considerable heterogeneity in pond-bed hydraulic properties, while two-factor ANOVA without replication showed significant differences among sampling locations (p = 0.02) but non-significant differences among ponds (p = 0.13). Hydraulic conductivity decreased consistently from Location-1 to Locations-2 and 3, highlighting the influence of within-pond variability. These findings emphasize the importance of multi-location field measurements for reliable estimation of hydraulic properties and groundwater recharge assessment in alluvial pond ecosystems.
Watershed development for ecological restoration in the state of Punjab: Implementation experiences, outcomes and lessons learnt
The state of Punjab is divided into three agro-ecological regions namely the Shivalik foot hill region, central irrigated plains and southern region of brackish water. All the regions have different types of ecological problems but the deforestation, rampant soil erosion, damage to land and infrastructure, siltation of water bodies and loss of biodiversity in the Shivaliks received maximum attention even before and after independence. Several state, central and foreign funded projects operated in this region basically to reverse the trend of ecological degradation adopting cost effective watershed development approach. In case of the central irrigated plains, the dawn of green revolution revolutionized agriculture and soon became grain bowl of India. Unfortunately, green revolution was fatigued on its own turf with emergence of serious problem of groundwater depletion, excessive use of chemicals, and imbalance in fertilizer use, residue burning and soil health deterioration. In an attempt for ecological restoration, the National Watershed Development Project for Rain-fed Areas (NWDPRA) funded by the Govt. of India was implemented in the Shivaliks with small funds and coverage and ended with limited success. In the Kandi Watershed and Area Development Project (KWADP) funded by the World Bank, eleven medium height dams were constructed by the Irrigation and Drainage Department but rapid siltation problem emerged as catchment areas were not well treated. Major push to watershed development was given by the Integrated Watershed Development Project (IWDP) Hills funded by the World Banks and a total area of 180,100 ha was treated in 75 priority watersheds of four participating states up to March 1999. This was followed by IWDP Hills Phase II which operated till 2005 in five states with satisfactory results. Subsequently, focus was shifted to irrigated plains to stem the problem of groundwater depletion. As a follow up, the Govt. of India supported Integrated Watershed Management Program for almost ten years and then re-designated as Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yogna (PMKSY) to improve water use efficiency, rejuvenation of water bodies and protective irrigation by rainwater harvesting. Taking a historical perspective, the work of British Forest Officers in the joint Punjab, establishment of agricultural research and development infrastructure, creation of independent department of soil and water conservation, major soil and water conservation activities initially started in foot hill area and resource conservation linked farm activities promoted in irrigated plains are described. The detailed description of state, central and foreign funded projects which changed development strategies in the Shivaliks have been presented. Subsequently, the scope of such projects was extended to plain areas to address the problem of groundwater depletion through the use of pond water after renovation and use of waste water after treatment for irrigation. There was no comprehensive document enlisting the implementation details of soil and water conservation/watershed development schemes and projects to address the problems of degradation and their consequences, analysis of success and failures and lessons learnt. Unfortunately, most of the valuable information was not placed in the public domain. It was intended that the valuable information on outcomes of millions of dollars spent is compiled at one place for the benefit and guidance of younger officers, field functionaries, students, fellow research workers, policy planners and other stakeholders.
Comparative study of various cropping system for their system productivity, profitability and soil fertility under north Gujarat conditions
The experiment was conducted on diversification of cropping system as component of small holder farming systems during 2019-20 to 2022-2023 at Centre for Research on Integrated Farming Systems, SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar to identify need based crop sequences to suit resources available and needs of arid eco-system of North Gujarat. Different ten cropping systems were tested during the study period. The crop sequence fodder maize-fodder oat- fodder pearlmillet recorded highest system productivity (kg/ha/day), followed by fodder sorghum-lucerne- lucerne continue. In case of system profitability (`/ ha/day), water productivity(kg/ha-mm), nutrient productivity(kg/kg) were highest under fodder sorghum-lucerne- lucerne continue crop sequence. Employment generation (Mandays/ha) was found highest under groundnut- wheat- green gram crop sequence. Soil available nutrients like N, P2O5, organic carbon and water holding capacity were found highest and bulk density was found lowest under sunhemp-fenugreek- green gram crop sequence. The lowest system productivity, system profitability, and water productivity were recorded under sunhemp-fenugreek-green gram.
Influence of liquid organic manures on soil properties of garden pea (Pisum sativum L. var. hortense)
A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of different liquid organic manures on soil properties of garden pea at the Instructional cum Research Farm, Biswanath College of Agriculture, AAU, Biswanath Chariali in the rabi season during 2024-2025. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with seven treatments and three replications. The study revealed that there was significant difference among the treatments with respect to different soil parameters. The treatment T4 (Vermiwash @10%) increased soil pH (5.51), T5 (Jeevamrit @5%) markedly reduced bulk density (1.35 g cm-3), enhanced organic carbon (0.84%) and soil microbial population (25.29×10 6 cfu g-1 soil ) while RDF recorded the highest available N (424.48 kg ha-1), P2O5 (38.58 kg ha-1) and K2O (334.62 kg ha-1). These results indicate that although RDF ensures rapid nutrient availability, organic inputs such as Jeevamrit and Vermiwash significantly improve soil quality, emphasizing their potential for sustainable soil fertility management in organic production systems.
Effect of soil and foliar applied nutrients on growth, yield and nutrient content of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.)
A field experiment was conducted during rabi season of 2024-25 at Soil Research Farm, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, to study the effect of soil and foliar application of nutrients on growth, yield and nutrient content of Indian mustard. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with 10 treatments in three replications. The results of the study revealed that application of RDF along with NPK (19:19:19) and seaweed extract at flowering and siliqua formation stages (T10) significantly increased the growth parameters, yield and yield attributes along with an improved harvest index of the mustard over control. The seed yield, stover yield and harvest index of mustard in T10 increased significantly to 2095 and 5754 kg ha-1 and 26.6%, respectively over control. The highest NPK content in seed (2.42, 0.51, 1.01%) and stover (0.77, 0.34, 2.82%) was also observed in T10 where RDF + NPK (19:19:19) and seaweed extract at flowering and siliqua formation stages was applied which was statistically at par with T9, i.e. NPK content of 2.32, 0.45, 0.94% in seed and 0.72, 0.32, 2.79% in stover, respectively. Application of RDF + 0.2% B + 1% K2SO4 at flowering and siliqua formation (T8) showed highest concentration of sulphur (0.44% in seed and 0.27% in stover) and boron (26.99% in seed and 24.61% in stover) in both seed as well as stover in mustard over control. Overall, it can be concluded that combined soil and foliar nutrient treatments could enhanced the absorption of nutrients, especially during critical growth stages and thereby sustaining the mustard yield.
Application of soil resistivity meter in site suitability analysis for litchi cultivation as a land management tool
The present study investigates the role of soil resistivity in determining site suitability for litchi (Litchi chinensis) cultivation in the Pathankot district of Punjab. The Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) method, using a Schlumberger array, was employed across nine litchi orchards located in different geographical zones of the district. Soil resistivity data were recorded up to a depth of 100 meters and analyzed to characterize subsurface lithology. The results revealed significant variations in soil resistivity, indicating differences in lithological composition such as clay, sand, boulders, and rock. The central zones exhibited more homogeneous subsoil profiles with thick clay layers, offering favorable conditions for litchi root development and consistent groundwater availability. In contrast, the northern hilly and southern lowlying regions displayed heterogeneous formations with high-resistivity zones containing rocks and boulders, indicating poor water retention and limited root penetration. These findings were crossvalidated with well log data from the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and used to create a 3D lithological model of the district. The study concludes that central Pathankot, with its uniform subsurface characteristics and higher soil moisture retention, is most suitable for litchi cultivation. Thus, soil resistivity proves to be an effective, non-invasive tool for agricultural land evaluation, irrigation planning, and sustainable land management.
Spatial interpolation of soil physico-chemical properties in major growing area of cumin and coriander based cropping system
Soil formation factors and process provide an insight for spatial variability of soil physical and chemical properties and at places if got influenced by anthropogenic activities. The goal of this study was to apply to use descriptive and geostatistical methods to quantify the spatial variability of 148 soil samples collected from 4 seed spices growing regions for soil physico-chemical properties, viz. pH, organic carbon, EC, available N, P, K, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, exchangeable Na, CEC, and particle size classes. The coefficient of variation for soil pH was the lowest (5%), while EC had the large variation (151%). The soil’s texture triplet (4-3-0), which consists of four (coarse fractions), three (moderate) fractions, and none (fine fraction), was estimated using information entropy (IE). The spatial correlation of soil Zn, Mn and Cu followed a spherical model among the several semi-variogram while DTPA - Fe showed an exponential model. The nugget: sill ratio for geostatistical analysis ranges from 0% for soil DTPA - Mn and Cu to 66% (DTPAFe). Cross-validation data on prediction errors showed that ordinary kriging (r = 0.891, P < 0.01) was superior to inverse distance weighting (r = 0.821, P < 0.01) for interpolating these micronutrients. The findings indicated that it is possible to apply the chosen fit model in any eco-regions for micronutrient cations of diverse origin.
Challenges and opportunities in soil carbon trading promoted to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and climate change mitigation: A perspective
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UNIPCC 2007) held that it is important for agriculture sector to adapt to such climate changes particularly for food and water security. Paris Agreement was adopted by India in 2015 which aimed to strengthen international cooperation in climate action and provided for creation of global carbon market to mitigate climate change impacts. The Ministry of Forest, Environment and Climate Change Government of India framed programs, policies and regulations to address the climate change threats and mitigation strategies. The Government of India and FAO took an initiative on transforming Rice-Wheat system with regenerative practices. The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare (2023) prepared draft green credit program implementation rules under which the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) was included as one of the nine missions outlined under National Action Plan on Climate Change. The soil carbon trading is now carried out under NMSA. Punjab and Haryana are central to India’s rice-wheat production system, vital for national food security and agricultural exports. However, this intensive system faces increasing stress due to groundwater depletion, stubble burning, soil degradation, and climate vulnerability. Agriculture practices account for about 20% India’s total emission and majority of which comes from crop residue burning or agriculture biomass burning. Soil carbon credit and trading for climate change gradually emerged as a prominent tool to reduce green house emissions. This attracted the attention of several companies dealing with soil carbon trading based on elimination of residue burning but incorporation in soil to increase tradable soil carbon. The paper highlights the experience of monitoring and evaluation of a soil carbon credit project based on direct sown rice in Punjab and Haryana by a US based team and encapsulate salient results of a comprehensive review of literature on challenges and opportunities in soil carbon trading.
Design, development and performance evaluation of a perpetual induced water wheel pumping system
A water wheel pumping system with induced perpetual motion has been developed and tested. A water wheel that rotates under the action of flowing water due to its kinetic energy exerted when water strikes the face of blades, while an induced perpetual mechanism may further enhance the overall performance of the system. This innovative system demonstrates the potential of renewable energy (specifically the kinetic energy of flowing water) for water lifting and for operating drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation systems by effectively utilizing the natural flow of water. It can conserve resources, reduce dependence on conventional energy sources, and serve as a suitable alternative in remote and inaccessible areas, provided that the favourable site conditions are met. As the wheel rotates, water enters the inlet pipe, resulting in a water and air column being created within the coil due to the successive intake of water and air. Air, being compressible in nature, acts like a spring, thereby assisting in pushing the water toward the centre of the wheel and getting finally discharged through a housing pipe. The induced water pumping system was tested at a 1.2 m/s flow velocity under different operating heads for assessing its performance. When the velocity of flowing water is constant at 1.2 m/s and delivery head (total head) is varying from 3.74 m to 3.98 m, it was observed that the discharge rate of water decreases from 0.42 lps to 0.32 lps, and the RPM of the wheel also decreases from 23 to 21. It was observed that the induction of perpetual motion resulted in an increase in the RPM of the water wheel under the given flow velocity conditions. Furthermore, the most suitable way of inducing perpetual motion was achieved by fixing half-filled two-litre water bottles at 90° on both sides of the water wheel.
Integration of geospatial techniques and AHP for groundwater potential and quality assessment in the Brahmani River Basin, India
Groundwater is one of the most significant resources that is increasingly coming under pressure due to industrialisation, rising population, and a changing climate. This study aims to evaluate this groundwater resource quality and delineate potential areas in the Brahmani River basin situated in Orissa, India, using geospatial techniques in combination with the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). Several thematic maps were created to depict rainfall, land use, geological features, slope, drainage density, lineaments, and soil texture,to assess the values of the Groundwater Potential Zone Index(GWPI). According to chloride, electrical conductivity, total hardness and other content in such water, it was further analysed for the development of the Water Quality Index (WQI) for each class. Almost 88% of the study area had displayed potential for moderate to good groundwater resources, whereas 44% of the region had very good water quality. The study affirmed the use of the AHP and GIS technologies for achieving sustainable groundwater management goals and also recommended that more effort be made to develop an advanced modeling technique for enhanced resource planning.
Identification of groundwater potential zones using geoinformatics for Nagpur region
Water, a vital natural resource and essential component for all living organisms, exists in two primary forms: surface water and groundwater. Groundwater, a significant global resource, is unevenly distributed worldwide. Enhancing groundwater recharge is a fundamental hydrological parameter for assessing, managing, and modelling groundwater resources. However, determining recharge rates is a complex and challenging task, despite its crucial role in recharge assessments. The current study has been conducted in Nagpur region. The groundwater potential of the Nagpur region was assessed using remote sensing and GIS by bringing together several thematic maps. The study covers an area of about 195.57 km², which includes small water bodies (4.12 km²) and narrow valleys (0.38 km²). The land elevation across the region varies from roughly 217 m to 331 m above mean sea level. Four main geological formations are present, with Deccan Trap being the most widespread, covering nearly 44% of the area, followed by Granite Gneiss, the Lameta Group, and Alluvium. Most of the landscape is characterized by pediplain terrain, accounting for about 37% of the area, and gravelly sand soils are commonly found. The region is largely gentle in nature, with almost half of the area having a very mild slope of 0–3%. Agricultural land occupies around 16% of the total area. The analysis shows that more than half of the region falls under a moderate groundwater recharge potential. Based on these observations, the study highlights practical water-conservation measures. It recommends nala bunding along first-order streams to reduce soil erosion and runoff, and the construction of check dams on second- and third-order streams to store water and improve groundwater recharge.
Assessment of soil erodibility under different land use systems in the hill region of Assam, India
Soil erosion resulting from unsustainable land-use changes and forest-to-cropland conversion poses a critical environmental threat in the tropical hilly landscapes of Northeast India, popularly known as North Eastern Hill region. This study evaluates soil erodibility across different land use categories viz. natural forest, jhum land, rubber plantation, crop land (rice/maize), agroforestry (home garden) and bamboo plantation in Karbi Anglong district of Assam using multiple soil erodibility indices. Results indicated notable shifts in surface soil texture from clay loam in natural forests to sandy clay loam under plantations and croplands. The mean dispersion ratio peaked in rice/maize croplands (20.30), followed by jhum lands (19.98), bamboo plantations (18.09), rubber plantations (17.52), home gardens (17.21), and forest soils (16.34). Erosion ratio was highest in rice/maize cropland (17.72), while other land uses ranged between 13.20 and 15.75. The erosion susceptibility followed the order: rice/maize cropland> jhum land > rubber plantation > bamboo plantation > home garden > forest. Soils under all land uses were found to be highly prone to erosion, with the exception of forest soils and tree based home garden, which exhibited relatively low erodibility.
Effect of tillage and precision nutrient placement on below-ground biomass, nutrient content and yield of maize (Zea mays L.)
A comprehensive experiment was conducted at ICAR–Indian Agricultural Research Institute in New Delhi, during the Kharif season, 2022–2023 to assess effect of tillage and precision nutrient placement on below ground biomass and nutrient content of maize (Zea mays L.). Experiment was conducted in split plot design with 3 main plot treatments of different tillage viz., T1, (conventional tillage); T2, (once rotavator as minimum tillage) and T3, (zero tillage) and 4, precision nutrient application options N1, 50% RDF as point placement; N2, 75% RDF as band placement; N3, 100% RDF as band placement and N4, 100% RDF as broadcasting were tested in subplots and replicated thrice. Results revealed that minimum tillage as 49.50% fresh root weight (g plant-1), 102.7% root dry weight (g plant-1), 17.4% root length (cm), 24.2% root surface area (cm² cm-³), 46.49% root volume(cm3), 21.21% root mass density as compared to conventional tillage (T1) which is mainly due to crop residue incorporated in minimum tillage. The highest N, P and K content in maize grain and stover were recorded with minimum tillage, while the lowest content of all these nutrients was recorded with conventional tillage. The 100% RDF through band placement (N3) resulted 45.59% fresh root weight (g plant-1), 32.7% root dry weight (g plant-1), 21.72% root volume (cm3), 11.4% root length (cm), 20% root surface area (cm² cm-³), 20% root mass density compared to 100% RDF as broadcasting (N4). While 100% RDF of band placement yielded the maximum N, P, and K content in maize grains and stover, it was statistically equivalent to 50% RDF of point placement. Strong positive connections between maize grain yield, yield characteristics, and nutritional content are found in the study, underscoring their combined importance in raising productivity. The findings indicated that the adoption of minimum tillage coupled with precise point nutrient placement significantly enhanced below-ground biomass and nutrient accumulation in maize (Zea mays L.) during the kharif season, while enabling a 50% reduction in fertilizer use efficiency without compromising crop performance.
Influence of Panchgavya and Jeevamrutha on soilfertility and performance of late sown wheat
A field experiment was conducted during the rabi season 2023-24 at the research farm unit of Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar, to study the application of Jeevamrutha and Panchgavya in different concentration either as soil application alone or in combination with foliar application on soil fertility status along with growth of late sown wheat under natural farming. Results showed that soil application of jeevamrutha @ 15% at 20, 40, and 60 DAS along with foliar application of panchgavya @ 3% at the heading and milking stage (T10) recorded the highest plant height (56.9 cm), number of tillers 188.8 m-2), dry matter (452.1 g m-2), and leaf area index (3.95). The highest grain yield of 19.6 q ha- 1 was recorded under T10 which was 86.7% more as compared to the control. In case of soil parameters after the harvest of crop, the treatment T10 exhibited significantly higher available nitrogen (223.1 kg ha- 1), phosphorus (28.95 kg ha- 1), and potassium (203.85 kg ha- 1). This corresponds to an increase of 18.6% in available nitrogen, 24.3% in available phosphorus, and 16.9% in available potassium over the control treatment (T1). Additionally, T10 showed a significant effect on the total uptake of nitrogen (43.95 kg ha- 1), phosphorus (18.27 kg ha- 1), and potassium (70.67 kg ha- 1), which were 22.7%, 26.1%, and 19.3% higher, respectively, compared to the control. In terms of enzymatic activity, the treatment T10 recorded significantly higher values of dehydrogenase activity (49.02 μg PNP g- 1 soil h- 1), acidic phosphatase activity (95.04 μg PNP g- 1 soil h- 1, alkaline phosphatase activity (161.06 μg TPF g- 1 soil h- 1), and microbial biomass carbon (357.21 mg kg- 1). These values showed increases of approximately 31.4% in dehydrogenase activity, 28.7% in acidic phosphatase, 34.5% in alkaline phosphatase, and 29.8% in microbial biomass carbon compared with the control treatment. Thus, soil application of jeevamrutha @ 15% at 20, 40, and 60 DAS along with foliar application of panchgavya @ 3% at the heading and milking stage can enhance the wheat productivity along with maintain soil health.
Potential of leguminous tree species to restore the degraded soil
The essential basic resource needed to satisfy the wide range of human needs is natural resources where one of the most vital resources for human survival is soil. It is among the biotic elements that are essential to maintaining an ecosystem’s food security. A significant determinant of agricultural productivity is soil. Today, in areas where civilization is growing, the soil has all but died. In India, over 30% of the land is degraded. The symbiotic relationship between Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and nodulating N‚ -fixing bacteria allows leguminous tree species to recover the deteriorated soil. From the present discussion, information generated that soil was improved under legume tree species by increasing the OC and available N, P, and K and also by reducing the bulk density of soil. Moreover, it has a better capacity to grow quickly and withstand degraded land; thus, leguminous tree species have the potential to establish and grow in degraded land and improve soil health through the nitrogen fixation nature and organic matter more than non-leguminous tree species. From the literature, several researchers have reported that leguminous tree species are one of the best alternatives for the reclamation of soil. Leguminous trees, i.e., Prosopis juliflora, Dalbergia sisoo, Glyricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Albizia lebbeck, Prosopis cineraria, Pithecellobium macradenium, etc., are important tree species for reclaiming the soil health by adding organic matter in soil from the leaf litter and fixing nitrogen. These leguminous tree species not only improved soil health but also have multipurpose use, which helps the grower to generate income.
Copyright (c) 2025 Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi
Application of photogrammetric technique for deriving topographic information in Delta region
Digital elevation models (DEM) are crucial for conducting topographical studies in land and water resources management, particularly in flood management. The delta section of a basin is consistently susceptible to flooding due to its low gradient, which poses challenges in analyzing the topographical data. This study attempts to develop a relatively accurate DEM from Cartosat-1 stereo image pairs for delta region of Mahanadi basin. Photogrammetry technique is meticulously performed with minimum RMSE of 2 to 3 pixels. A 10m×10m generated DEM was resampled to 30m×30m DEM for comparison with SRTM DEM. DEM quality was assessed with reference to surveyed cross-section, river embankment profile and ground control points using statistical parameter and accuracy measures such as root mean square error (RMSE) and mean average error (MAE). For river cross-sections, MAE and RMSE of Cartosat- 1 DEM, i.e., 2.70 m and 3.38 m, respectively are found to be lower than that of SRTM DEM, i.e., 4.26 m and 5.32 m, respectively. Statistical and graphical comparison infers that the generated Cartosat-1 DEM is better in representing river bed than that of the SRTM DEM; however, both the DEMs have similar representation for the floodplain elevation.
Productivity, water use and economics as influenced by irrigation scheduling and fertilizer management practices in Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) under drip irrigation
A field experiment was conducted during winter seasons of 2018-19 and 2019-20 at SKUAST-Jammu to study the effect of different irrigation schedules and fertilizer management on productivity, water use and economics in Broccoli. The experiment was laid out in strip plot design with three replications. The treatments comprised of three drip irrigation schedules in vertical strips viz., drip irrigation at 100% ETc; drip irrigation at 75% ETc and drip irrigation at 50% ETc and four fertilizer management practices in horizontal strips viz., 100% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer; 75% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 25% through liquid fertilizers; 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through liquid fertilizers and 25% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 75% through liquid fertilizers and control was IW / CPE=1.0 with RDF as solid fertilizer. Results showed that drip irrigation at 100% ETc in broccoli provided significantly higher yield and saved 13.08% irrigation water over control. Likewise, in sub plots (horizontal strips) application of 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through liquid fertilizers using liquid fertilizers recorded significantly higher curd yield in broccoli. This treatment increased curd yield of broccoli by 26.34% over control. The drip irrigation water was saved to the tune of 13.08, 32.25 and 51.40%, respectively under 100% ETc, 75% ETc and 50% ETc irrigation schedules over Control (IW/CPE=1.0). The net returns were highest in the treatment 100% ETc alongwith 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through fertigation (Rs. 4,61,341.50) and lowest in control (Rs. 2,31,313.00) whereas the benefit: cost ratio under respective treatments was 4.59 and 2.90.
Predicting the effective timing of sugarcane nitrogen fertilization based on ten-year weekly growth analysis
Nitrogen is a fundamental macronutrient for sugarcane cultivation, critically influencing physiological processes and biomass accumulation, despite comprising only approximately one percent of the plant’s dry weight at maturity. In the Imam Khomeini Agro-Industry complex, located in the Shuaibiya region of Khuzestan, Iran, nitrogen fertilization is applied in four split doses from April to July to improve efficiency and mitigate environmental impacts. This study in the 2022-2023 crop year in the Shuaibieh region of Khuzestan Province, Iran aimed to determine the optimal timing of nitrogen application stages based on nitrogen uptake and growth response in commercial sugarcane cultivars. A comprehensive analysis was conducted using crop logging data collected over a ten-year period, with a focus on average weekly growth trends for both plant cane (P) and Ratoon cane (R). The results identified specific growth stages during which nitrogen application had the most significant impact on plant development and productivity for each cultivar and crop age. These findings provide a practical and data-driven basis for optimizing nitrogen fertilization schedules, enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, and promoting sustainable sugarcane farming practices in the region.
Long-term effect of different cropping systems on physical quality of soil in North-western India
Soil physical quality is an important indicator of a good soil environment for plant growth with optimum aeration, water movement, and nutrient transformations. The puddling practices in rice (Oryza sativa L.) crop, degrades the physical quality of soil through destruction of soil structure, reduction of soil porosity, and formation of hardpan. Also, the other cereal-cereal crop rotations, intensive tillage, and removal of crop residues affect the soil physical parameters. So, ten cropping systems viz. rice-wheat (R-W), maize- wheat (M-W); basmati rice-wheat-cowpea green manure (Br-W-Cgm); maize-mustard/gm-cowpea gm (M-Ms/gm-Cgm); maize-potato-spring groundnut (M-Po-Sg); maize-peas-spring groundnut (M-P-Sg); maize+cowpea (fodder)-maize fodder-oats fodder-sathi maize fodder ((M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf); sorghum multicut fodder-barseem fodder (Sf-Bf); maize (cobs/fodder)-potato-onion ((M(c/f)-Po-On); baby corn- potato-okra (Bc-Po-Ok) were studied during 2020-21 to assess their impact on physical quality of soil. Significantly higher soil pH in M-Po-Sg and higher aggregate associated carbon, porosity, maximum water holding capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity (SHC) and soil moisture retention in M-Ms/ gm-Cgm were observed. ((M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf) showed significantly higher soil organic carbon, mean weight diameter, and water stable aggregates (WSA) while the lowest was reported in R-W. The lowest soil electrical conductivity (EC) was observed in M-Ms/gm-Cgm and (M+C)f-Mf-Of-SMF. Significantly higher bulk density was reported in (R-W) while lowest in M-Ms/gm-Cgm. Soil quality index (SQI) was higher in M-Ms/gm-Cgm followed by (M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf, Sf-Bf, while lowest in R-W. The order of overall contribution of selected indicators to the SQI was 36.5%, 29.0%, 25.0% and 9.5% by WSA, SHC, pH, and EC, respectively. It is concluded that inclusion of green manures/fodders/legumes in rotations with cereal crops could improve the physical quality of soil compared to cereal-cereal rotations.
Soil chemical properties under poplar-wheat agroforestry system in tarai lands of Uttarakhand
An investigation was carried out to study the chemical characteristics of soil under poplar-based agroforestry system at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand during winter season of 2018. The poplar plants were about four and a half years old. Soil pH, soil electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic carbon (SOC) and contents of available macronutrients viz., N, P and K in surface soil (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm depth) were determined. Soil pH and EC were decreased whereas soil organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium were higher under poplar- based agroforestry system as compared to open farming system. Highest nitrogen content was present under agroforestry system compared to open farming. At 0-15 cm the highest nitrogen measured was in treatment-1 plot (252.9 kg/ha) and lowest in treatment-8 plot (250.7 kg/ha). In open farming system the measured nitrogen content measured was 247.3 kg/ha. The maximum available phosphorus recorded was in treatment-2 plot (21.69 kg/ha) followed by treatment-4 plot (21.54 kg/ha). The agroforestry system recorded higher available potassium levels compared to the open farming system. Among the treatments, the treatment-5 plot showed the highest potassium content (219.6 kg/ha), followed by treatment-1 (219.3 kg/ha), while treatment-7 had the lowest (218.7 kg/ha); in contrast, the open farming system recorded 207.8 kg/ha. Therefore, the long-term adoption of poplar-based agroforestry system helps in improving the soil chemical properties as well as nutrient status.
Estimation of spatio-temporal variability of groundwater balance components in Kupwara district, Kashmir
Groundwater is a critical resource for sustaining agriculture, domestic supply, and ecosystems in the Himalayan region, yet its availability is increasingly threatened by climatic variability, land-use change, and unsustainable extraction. This study assessed the spatial and temporal variability of groundwater balance components in Kupwara district, using the WetSpass-M water balance model. The model integrated meteorological data (rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, temperature, wind speed), land use/land cover, soil texture, topography, and groundwater depth to simulate actual evapotranspiration (AET), surface runoff, and groundwater recharge at monthly, seasonal, and annual scales from 2012 to 2024. Results revealed that annual rainfall averaged 655.7 mm, of which 38–40% was lost to AET, 12% contributed to runoff and 18% percolated as recharge, underscoring the recharge-supportive nature of the basin. Seasonal analysis showed that summer contributed the largest rainfall (291 mm) but was dominated by ET and runoff, while spring exhibited the highest recharge efficiency (43% of rainfall). Autumn and winter emerged as water-stressed seasons, with minimal recharge and ET losses exceeding rainfall inputs. Spatial patterns indicated recharge hotspots in the central and southern basin, while high-runoff zones in the northeast posed localized flood and erosion risks. The study concludes that it maintains a positive water balance but is subject to strong seasonal and spatial heterogeneity. These findings provide a scientific basis for sustainable groundwater management, emphasizing the need to couple ET-reducing practices with recharge-enhancing measures. The outputs also serve as essential input for predictive groundwater models, supporting adaptive strategies under changing climate and land-use pressures.
Digital soil mapping of Jethuwal, Punjab, India for climate-smart fertilization in field crops
To support climate-smart fertilization, the current attempt intends to create digital soil maps (DSMs) of Jethuwal village of Verka block, Amritsar, Punjab. DSM for different soil physico-chemical and macro nutrients were prepared using ArcGIS software by first selecting 30 boundary points and thereafter 132 soil sampling points (0-15 cm) with coordinates by using GPS-60 (GARMIN) to address these geographical soil differences. Collected soil samples were analyzed in the soil and water testing lab of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, for electrical conductivity, soil pH, soil organic carbon, available phosphorus, and potassium, respectively. First, an outer boundary map was produced, and DSMs were prepared by superimposing different values for different nutrients. Analysis revealed that the village had a sandy loam texture, a pH range of 6.89 to 6.85, an EC range of 0.31 to 0.69 m-mhos cm-1, SOC reported to be lower in 87.2% of samples, available P ranging from 13.0 to 16.8 mg kg-1, and finally available K with a range of 100 to 188 mg kg-1. Underground water also reported to be of good quality. For SOC, the samples’ Parker Nutrient Index (PNI) values were reported to be lower for soil organic carbon (1.11) while higher for available P and K (3.00). The correlation table reveals only weak associations among soil parameters, with pH slightly influencing available P (0.24) and EC weakly linked to SOC, P, and K. Therefore, DSM- based crop fertilization is required for practicing judicious, climate-smart, and plant-need-based chemical fertilization in Jethuwal, which on one side reduces overall costs of cultivation while on the other improves the soil health.
Spatial variability of soil macronutrients at farm-scale in irrigated plains under rice-wheat cropping system
Soil characteristics vary drastically even over short distances. For sustainable crop production, farm- level precision nutrient management necessitates an understanding of the spatial variability of soil nutrients. However, small-scale nutrient data are insufficient for effective management on farms. Grid- based sampling offers a viable approach for large-scale assessment to delineate nutrient-deficient zones. A study was conducted at Chakroi Farm, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu (SKUAST-J), to evaluate the spatial variability of soil macronutrients at the farm scale. The highest variability was recorded for sulphate-S (SO4-S) in both surface (0-15 cm; 70.27%) and sub-surface (15-30 cm; 79.94%) layers, whilst the least was recorded for available-N (18.45%) and available- P (19.47%). In the surface layer, the spherical model was the best fit for available N, whereas the exponential model fit all other macronutrients. In the sub-surface layer, the Gaussian model was the best fit for available P, K, and SO4-S, while the exponential model best described available N. Approximately 50% of the farm area had medium levels of available-N, with the remainder in the low range. Over 40% of the area had available-P between 11–15 mg kg-1. Surface soil available K predominantly ranged from 50–75 mg kg-1, while sub-surface K was lower in the western region (25–50 mg kg-1), increasing toward the southeast. Most SO4-S values exceeded the critical threshold of 10 mg kg-
Remote sensing and GIS approach for estimation of water spread area of surface waters of Srinagar city in Kashmir Himalayan region
The present study quantifies decadal changes (2000–2020) in the water spread area of Srinagar’s major surface waters (Dal Lake, Nigeen Lake, Anchar, Gilsar–Khushalsar, Brari Nambal, Nallah Amir Khan, Jhelum River) using multi temporal LANDSAT imagery and ASTER GDEM. Imagery was atmospherically corrected (Dark Object Subtraction) and geometrically aligned; water bodies were delineated via normalized difference water index (NDWI) with a threshold of ≥0.3, and refined by MNDWI to reduce built up misclassification. Supervised maximum likelihood classification and Otsu thresholding were applied; overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient were assessed against high resolution reference points (n=150), yielding 92.4% accuracy and κ=0.89. Results show a 21.5% average decline in lake and wetland area, with the steepest loss in Brari Nambal (41%) and modest recovery in Dal Lake (+1.9%) post 2014 flood remediation. Correlation with long term precipitation and built up area expansion (derived from 2000–2020) indicates strong links (r=0.78, p<0.01) between urban sprawl and water loss. The study recommend annual NDWI monitoring using Sentinel 2, integration of LULC change detection, and community based conservation under India’s Jal Shakti Abhiyan to mitigate ongoing degradation.
Conservation of in-situ soil moisture through non-woven geo-jute mulches: A case study under North Eastern Hilly Region of India
To enhance water productivity of winter crops under hilly terrain of North Eastern India, resource conservation techniques need to be adhered. Bio-mulching is a possible solution to overcome soil moisture deficits to a great extent. Inclusion of non-woven jute as mulching material apart from regular crop and weed residues is an innovative approach to address this issue. To assess the effectiveness of different non-woven jute mulches a field trial was conducted during winter season 2023-24 at Meghalaya. The experiment was conducted in a split-plot design with three jute mulch treatments and a control under main plot treatment [(No mulch (M1); 400 gsm mulch (M2); 500 gsm mulch (M3) and 600 gsm mulch (M4)] along with three pea cultivars [IPFD-99-13 (V1); IPFD-1-10 (V2) and IPF-99-25 (V3)] under sub-plot treatment and replicated thrice. To estimate the comparative efficacy of non-woven jute mulch equal volume of water was applied at four critical stages of crop. The average increase in soil moisture content as compared to un-mulch plot (M1) was 12.6, 11.9 and 4.6% for M4, M3 and M2, respectively. As compared to M1 the enhancement in yield was 141.25, 118.03 and 93.71% for M4, M3 and M2, respectively. The 600 gsm mulch (M4) mulch registered the highest water productivity at 73.42 kg ha-1 mm-1, similarly the registered values of water productivity with cultivars IPFD-99-25 and IPFD-1-10 were 65.50 and 56.16 42 kg ha-1 mm-1, respectively. Based on the experimental findings, it may be suggested that, 600 gsm non- woven jute mulch may be used with IPFD-99-25, which ensure a better winter pulse production.