The Journal regularly publishes refereed research articles, reviews, research notes and short communications of high impact in basic and applied research, development and management issues on soil and water conservation as well as watershed management and policy aspects of agriculture and rural development. Comprehensive review articles in the area of soil and water conservation and management, case studies and success stories are also published in the Journal.
On publication in JSWC, the copyrights on the full contents of the paper will be of Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi.
Potential of leguminous tree species to restore the degraded soil
The essential basic resource needed to satisfy the wide range of human needs is natural resources where one of the most vital resources for human survival is soil. It is among the biotic elements that are essential to maintaining an ecosystem’s food security. A significant determinant of agricultural productivity is soil. Today, in areas where civilization is growing, the soil has all but died. In India, over 30% of the land is degraded. The symbiotic relationship between Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and nodulating N‚ -fixing bacteria allows leguminous tree species to recover the deteriorated soil. From the present discussion, information generated that soil was improved under legume tree species by increasing the OC and available N, P, and K and also by reducing the bulk density of soil. Moreover, it has a better capacity to grow quickly and withstand degraded land; thus, leguminous tree species have the potential to establish and grow in degraded land and improve soil health through the nitrogen fixation nature and organic matter more than non-leguminous tree species. From the literature, several researchers have reported that leguminous tree species are one of the best alternatives for the reclamation of soil. Leguminous trees, i.e., Prosopis juliflora, Dalbergia sisoo, Glyricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Albizia lebbeck, Prosopis cineraria, Pithecellobium macradenium, etc., are important tree species for reclaiming the soil health by adding organic matter in soil from the leaf litter and fixing nitrogen. These leguminous tree species not only improved soil health but also have multipurpose use, which helps the grower to generate income.
Copyright (c) 2025 Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi
Application of photogrammetric technique for deriving topographic information in Delta region
Digital elevation models (DEM) are crucial for conducting topographical studies in land and water resources management, particularly in flood management. The delta section of a basin is consistently susceptible to flooding due to its low gradient, which poses challenges in analyzing the topographical data. This study attempts to develop a relatively accurate DEM from Cartosat-1 stereo image pairs for delta region of Mahanadi basin. Photogrammetry technique is meticulously performed with minimum RMSE of 2 to 3 pixels. A 10m×10m generated DEM was resampled to 30m×30m DEM for comparison with SRTM DEM. DEM quality was assessed with reference to surveyed cross-section, river embankment profile and ground control points using statistical parameter and accuracy measures such as root mean square error (RMSE) and mean average error (MAE). For river cross-sections, MAE and RMSE of Cartosat- 1 DEM, i.e., 2.70 m and 3.38 m, respectively are found to be lower than that of SRTM DEM, i.e., 4.26 m and 5.32 m, respectively. Statistical and graphical comparison infers that the generated Cartosat-1 DEM is better in representing river bed than that of the SRTM DEM; however, both the DEMs have similar representation for the floodplain elevation.
Productivity, water use and economics as influenced by irrigation scheduling and fertilizer management practices in Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) under drip irrigation
A field experiment was conducted during winter seasons of 2018-19 and 2019-20 at SKUAST-Jammu to study the effect of different irrigation schedules and fertilizer management on productivity, water use and economics in Broccoli. The experiment was laid out in strip plot design with three replications. The treatments comprised of three drip irrigation schedules in vertical strips viz., drip irrigation at 100% ETc; drip irrigation at 75% ETc and drip irrigation at 50% ETc and four fertilizer management practices in horizontal strips viz., 100% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer; 75% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 25% through liquid fertilizers; 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through liquid fertilizers and 25% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 75% through liquid fertilizers and control was IW / CPE=1.0 with RDF as solid fertilizer. Results showed that drip irrigation at 100% ETc in broccoli provided significantly higher yield and saved 13.08% irrigation water over control. Likewise, in sub plots (horizontal strips) application of 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through liquid fertilizers using liquid fertilizers recorded significantly higher curd yield in broccoli. This treatment increased curd yield of broccoli by 26.34% over control. The drip irrigation water was saved to the tune of 13.08, 32.25 and 51.40%, respectively under 100% ETc, 75% ETc and 50% ETc irrigation schedules over Control (IW/CPE=1.0). The net returns were highest in the treatment 100% ETc alongwith 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through fertigation (Rs. 4,61,341.50) and lowest in control (Rs. 2,31,313.00) whereas the benefit: cost ratio under respective treatments was 4.59 and 2.90.
Sustainable management of Calcareous soil with conservation agriculture under rice-maize cropping system
Sustainable intensification of rice–maize systems is essential for meeting future food demands while maintaining soil health. In calcareous soils, high pH and calcium carbonate content hinder the nutrient availability for the crops. In this scenario, evaluating depth wise (0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm) soil fertility status after fifteen years long-term experimentation on tillage and residue management would be an essential strategy to sustain soil health. Treatments included: zero tillage direct seeded rice/zero tillage maize (T1: ZTDSR/ZTM, 25% residue retention), permanent bed direct seeded rice/permanent bed maize with residue retention (T2: PBDSR/PBM, 50% rice + 25% maize residue retention), PBDSR/PBM without residue (T3: PBDSR/PBM, no residue retention), and puddled transplanted rice/conventionally tilled maize (T4: PTR/CTM). Results indicated that PBDSR/PBM+R significantly improved the different physico- chemical properties of soil over conventional method. The treatment with PBDSR/PBM+R showed percent changes in pH, OC, available nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S) -2.9, 34.8, 11.8, 24.3, 111.9 and 54.4, respectively, in surface soils over conventional method (PTR/CTM). The Depth- wise analyses indicated nutrient stratification, with surface enrichment under residue-retained systems. The pH, CaCO3 and BD was found to increase with depth while OC, available N, P, K, S and micronutrient cations declined. The findings indicate that long-term conservation tillage with crop residue retention improved the nutrient availability in root zone of calcareous soil, while, there was decline in nutrient availability under conventional methods.
Predicting the effective timing of sugarcane nitrogen fertilization based on ten-year weekly growth analysis
Nitrogen is a fundamental macronutrient for sugarcane cultivation, critically influencing physiological processes and biomass accumulation, despite comprising only approximately one percent of the plant’s dry weight at maturity. In the Imam Khomeini Agro-Industry complex, located in the Shuaibiya region of Khuzestan, Iran, nitrogen fertilization is applied in four split doses from April to July to improve efficiency and mitigate environmental impacts. This study in the 2022-2023 crop year in the Shuaibieh region of Khuzestan Province, Iran aimed to determine the optimal timing of nitrogen application stages based on nitrogen uptake and growth response in commercial sugarcane cultivars. A comprehensive analysis was conducted using crop logging data collected over a ten-year period, with a focus on average weekly growth trends for both plant cane (P) and Ratoon cane (R). The results identified specific growth stages during which nitrogen application had the most significant impact on plant development and productivity for each cultivar and crop age. These findings provide a practical and data-driven basis for optimizing nitrogen fertilization schedules, enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, and promoting sustainable sugarcane farming practices in the region.
Long-term effect of different cropping systems on physical quality of soil in North-western India
Soil physical quality is an important indicator of a good soil environment for plant growth with optimum aeration, water movement, and nutrient transformations. The puddling practices in rice (Oryza sativa L.) crop, degrades the physical quality of soil through destruction of soil structure, reduction of soil porosity, and formation of hardpan. Also, the other cereal-cereal crop rotations, intensive tillage, and removal of crop residues affect the soil physical parameters. So, ten cropping systems viz. rice-wheat (R-W), maize- wheat (M-W); basmati rice-wheat-cowpea green manure (Br-W-Cgm); maize-mustard/gm-cowpea gm (M-Ms/gm-Cgm); maize-potato-spring groundnut (M-Po-Sg); maize-peas-spring groundnut (M-P-Sg); maize+cowpea (fodder)-maize fodder-oats fodder-sathi maize fodder ((M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf); sorghum multicut fodder-barseem fodder (Sf-Bf); maize (cobs/fodder)-potato-onion ((M(c/f)-Po-On); baby corn- potato-okra (Bc-Po-Ok) were studied during 2020-21 to assess their impact on physical quality of soil. Significantly higher soil pH in M-Po-Sg and higher aggregate associated carbon, porosity, maximum water holding capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity (SHC) and soil moisture retention in M-Ms/ gm-Cgm were observed. ((M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf) showed significantly higher soil organic carbon, mean weight diameter, and water stable aggregates (WSA) while the lowest was reported in R-W. The lowest soil electrical conductivity (EC) was observed in M-Ms/gm-Cgm and (M+C)f-Mf-Of-SMF. Significantly higher bulk density was reported in (R-W) while lowest in M-Ms/gm-Cgm. Soil quality index (SQI) was higher in M-Ms/gm-Cgm followed by (M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf, Sf-Bf, while lowest in R-W. The order of overall contribution of selected indicators to the SQI was 36.5%, 29.0%, 25.0% and 9.5% by WSA, SHC, pH, and EC, respectively. It is concluded that inclusion of green manures/fodders/legumes in rotations with cereal crops could improve the physical quality of soil compared to cereal-cereal rotations.
Soil chemical properties under poplar-wheat agroforestry system in tarai lands of Uttarakhand
An investigation was carried out to study the chemical characteristics of soil under poplar-based agroforestry system at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand during winter season of 2018. The poplar plants were about four and a half years old. Soil pH, soil electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic carbon (SOC) and contents of available macronutrients viz., N, P and K in surface soil (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm depth) were determined. Soil pH and EC were decreased whereas soil organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium were higher under poplar- based agroforestry system as compared to open farming system. Highest nitrogen content was present under agroforestry system compared to open farming. At 0-15 cm the highest nitrogen measured was in treatment-1 plot (252.9 kg/ha) and lowest in treatment-8 plot (250.7 kg/ha). In open farming system the measured nitrogen content measured was 247.3 kg/ha. The maximum available phosphorus recorded was in treatment-2 plot (21.69 kg/ha) followed by treatment-4 plot (21.54 kg/ha). The agroforestry system recorded higher available potassium levels compared to the open farming system. Among the treatments, the treatment-5 plot showed the highest potassium content (219.6 kg/ha), followed by treatment-1 (219.3 kg/ha), while treatment-7 had the lowest (218.7 kg/ha); in contrast, the open farming system recorded 207.8 kg/ha. Therefore, the long-term adoption of poplar-based agroforestry system helps in improving the soil chemical properties as well as nutrient status.
Estimation of spatio-temporal variability of groundwater balance components in Kupwara district, Kashmir
Groundwater is a critical resource for sustaining agriculture, domestic supply, and ecosystems in the Himalayan region, yet its availability is increasingly threatened by climatic variability, land-use change, and unsustainable extraction. This study assessed the spatial and temporal variability of groundwater balance components in Kupwara district, using the WetSpass-M water balance model. The model integrated meteorological data (rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, temperature, wind speed), land use/land cover, soil texture, topography, and groundwater depth to simulate actual evapotranspiration (AET), surface runoff, and groundwater recharge at monthly, seasonal, and annual scales from 2012 to 2024. Results revealed that annual rainfall averaged 655.7 mm, of which 38–40% was lost to AET, 12% contributed to runoff and 18% percolated as recharge, underscoring the recharge-supportive nature of the basin. Seasonal analysis showed that summer contributed the largest rainfall (291 mm) but was dominated by ET and runoff, while spring exhibited the highest recharge efficiency (43% of rainfall). Autumn and winter emerged as water-stressed seasons, with minimal recharge and ET losses exceeding rainfall inputs. Spatial patterns indicated recharge hotspots in the central and southern basin, while high-runoff zones in the northeast posed localized flood and erosion risks. The study concludes that it maintains a positive water balance but is subject to strong seasonal and spatial heterogeneity. These findings provide a scientific basis for sustainable groundwater management, emphasizing the need to couple ET-reducing practices with recharge-enhancing measures. The outputs also serve as essential input for predictive groundwater models, supporting adaptive strategies under changing climate and land-use pressures.
Digital soil mapping of Jethuwal, Punjab, India for climate-smart fertilization in field crops
To support climate-smart fertilization, the current attempt intends to create digital soil maps (DSMs) of Jethuwal village of Verka block, Amritsar, Punjab. DSM for different soil physico-chemical and macro nutrients were prepared using ArcGIS software by first selecting 30 boundary points and thereafter 132 soil sampling points (0-15 cm) with coordinates by using GPS-60 (GARMIN) to address these geographical soil differences. Collected soil samples were analyzed in the soil and water testing lab of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, for electrical conductivity, soil pH, soil organic carbon, available phosphorus, and potassium, respectively. First, an outer boundary map was produced, and DSMs were prepared by superimposing different values for different nutrients. Analysis revealed that the village had a sandy loam texture, a pH range of 6.89 to 6.85, an EC range of 0.31 to 0.69 m-mhos cm-1, SOC reported to be lower in 87.2% of samples, available P ranging from 13.0 to 16.8 mg kg-1, and finally available K with a range of 100 to 188 mg kg-1. Underground water also reported to be of good quality. For SOC, the samples’ Parker Nutrient Index (PNI) values were reported to be lower for soil organic carbon (1.11) while higher for available P and K (3.00). The correlation table reveals only weak associations among soil parameters, with pH slightly influencing available P (0.24) and EC weakly linked to SOC, P, and K. Therefore, DSM- based crop fertilization is required for practicing judicious, climate-smart, and plant-need-based chemical fertilization in Jethuwal, which on one side reduces overall costs of cultivation while on the other improves the soil health.
Spatial variability of soil macronutrients at farm-scale in irrigated plains under rice-wheat cropping system
Soil characteristics vary drastically even over short distances. For sustainable crop production, farm- level precision nutrient management necessitates an understanding of the spatial variability of soil nutrients. However, small-scale nutrient data are insufficient for effective management on farms. Grid- based sampling offers a viable approach for large-scale assessment to delineate nutrient-deficient zones. A study was conducted at Chakroi Farm, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu (SKUAST-J), to evaluate the spatial variability of soil macronutrients at the farm scale. The highest variability was recorded for sulphate-S (SO4-S) in both surface (0-15 cm; 70.27%) and sub-surface (15-30 cm; 79.94%) layers, whilst the least was recorded for available-N (18.45%) and available- P (19.47%). In the surface layer, the spherical model was the best fit for available N, whereas the exponential model fit all other macronutrients. In the sub-surface layer, the Gaussian model was the best fit for available P, K, and SO4-S, while the exponential model best described available N. Approximately 50% of the farm area had medium levels of available-N, with the remainder in the low range. Over 40% of the area had available-P between 11–15 mg kg-1. Surface soil available K predominantly ranged from 50–75 mg kg-1, while sub-surface K was lower in the western region (25–50 mg kg-1), increasing toward the southeast. Most SO4-S values exceeded the critical threshold of 10 mg kg-
Remote sensing and GIS approach for estimation of water spread area of surface waters of Srinagar city in Kashmir Himalayan region
The present study quantifies decadal changes (2000–2020) in the water spread area of Srinagar’s major surface waters (Dal Lake, Nigeen Lake, Anchar, Gilsar–Khushalsar, Brari Nambal, Nallah Amir Khan, Jhelum River) using multi temporal LANDSAT imagery and ASTER GDEM. Imagery was atmospherically corrected (Dark Object Subtraction) and geometrically aligned; water bodies were delineated via normalized difference water index (NDWI) with a threshold of ≥0.3, and refined by MNDWI to reduce built up misclassification. Supervised maximum likelihood classification and Otsu thresholding were applied; overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient were assessed against high resolution reference points (n=150), yielding 92.4% accuracy and κ=0.89. Results show a 21.5% average decline in lake and wetland area, with the steepest loss in Brari Nambal (41%) and modest recovery in Dal Lake (+1.9%) post 2014 flood remediation. Correlation with long term precipitation and built up area expansion (derived from 2000–2020) indicates strong links (r=0.78, p<0.01) between urban sprawl and water loss. The study recommend annual NDWI monitoring using Sentinel 2, integration of LULC change detection, and community based conservation under India’s Jal Shakti Abhiyan to mitigate ongoing degradation.
Conservation of in-situ soil moisture through non-woven geo-jute mulches: A case study under North Eastern Hilly Region of India
To enhance water productivity of winter crops under hilly terrain of North Eastern India, resource conservation techniques need to be adhered. Bio-mulching is a possible solution to overcome soil moisture deficits to a great extent. Inclusion of non-woven jute as mulching material apart from regular crop and weed residues is an innovative approach to address this issue. To assess the effectiveness of different non-woven jute mulches a field trial was conducted during winter season 2023-24 at Meghalaya. The experiment was conducted in a split-plot design with three jute mulch treatments and a control under main plot treatment [(No mulch (M1); 400 gsm mulch (M2); 500 gsm mulch (M3) and 600 gsm mulch (M4)] along with three pea cultivars [IPFD-99-13 (V1); IPFD-1-10 (V2) and IPF-99-25 (V3)] under sub-plot treatment and replicated thrice. To estimate the comparative efficacy of non-woven jute mulch equal volume of water was applied at four critical stages of crop. The average increase in soil moisture content as compared to un-mulch plot (M1) was 12.6, 11.9 and 4.6% for M4, M3 and M2, respectively. As compared to M1 the enhancement in yield was 141.25, 118.03 and 93.71% for M4, M3 and M2, respectively. The 600 gsm mulch (M4) mulch registered the highest water productivity at 73.42 kg ha-1 mm-1, similarly the registered values of water productivity with cultivars IPFD-99-25 and IPFD-1-10 were 65.50 and 56.16 42 kg ha-1 mm-1, respectively. Based on the experimental findings, it may be suggested that, 600 gsm non- woven jute mulch may be used with IPFD-99-25, which ensure a better winter pulse production.
Pedogenic characterization of soils of Eastern Region of the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam
An investigation was carried out in the alluvium derived soils of Eastern part of the Brahmaputra valley comprising two agro-climatic zones (Upper Brahmaputra valley zone and North bank plain zone) to characterize and classify the soils in the year 2023-2024. In total, five soil profiles were exposed from each zone (P1-P5 in UBVZ) and (P6-P10 in NBPZ) with a total number of 55 soil samples, collected from the ten profiles which were analyzed for morphological and physicochemical properties. Distinct variation was observed in the both morphological and physicochemical properties between the soils of UBVZ and NBPZ. The colour of the soils was dark brown to brownish yellow with a dominant hue of 10YR, with a value ranging from 4-6 and the chroma lying in the range of 2-5.The soil texture was mostly loam to clay loam in UBVZ and loamy sand to sandy loam in NBPZ. The soil structure was found to be medium to firm and weak sub angular blocky throughout all the profiles. The surface horizons pertained considerable higher amount of SOC (0.08-1.61%), maintaining a steady reduction down the profile. The soils were extremely to moderately acidic (pH 4.20-5.92) with a substantial amount of Ex. H+ and Ex Al3+ [0.08-0.89 and 0.74-2.11 cmol (P+ ) kg-1] respectively. The overall dominance of the concentration of exchangeable cations were as follows; Ca2+>Mg2+>Na+ =K+ . The CEC of the soils varied from 4.2-11.4 cmol (P+ ) kg-1. The content of basic cations was higher in soils of UBVZ compared to NBPZ thereby leading to higher PBS in UBVZ. The crystalline form of Fe oxides extracted by Na dithionite (Fed) was highest (0.37% to 3.02%) among all the fractions of other pedogenic oxides of Fe and Al, with a higher amount in UBVZ. The soils of UBVZ were mostly classified as Inceptisols except one profile (P2) while Entisols dominated the NBPZ.
Development of an Artificial Neural Network model for predicting the infiltration rate of soils in the Chhattisgarh plains
The infiltration rate is an important element in research concerning soil, hydrology, ecology, and agriculture. It serves as the fundamental input variable for models that examine water movement. Its significance lies in being the main input for water flow modeling. This study assessed the stable infiltration rate across various soil types in the Chhattisgarh Plains by using a multilayer artificial neural network, known as “ANN,” implemented through the back propagation algorithm. The data collected included bulk density, moisture content, and the proportions of sand, silt, and clay. An unseen dataset was utilized to evaluate the performance of the ANN models after the training phase. Philip created a model incorporating sand, silt, bulk density, and infiltration rate to ascertain the infiltration rate for assessment purposes. The findings from this research demonstrate a notable correspondence between the gathered data and the ANN simulations. The figures for the root mean square error and the coefficient of determination were marginally lower in the ANN steady infiltration rate model than in Philip’s model used for determining the infiltration rate. While the outcomes of these evaluations support the practical use of ANN, having a comprehensive local soil database from various locations would strengthen the assessment of the ANN models.
Cultural weed management in rice (Oryza sativa L.)– rice– toria (Brassica campestris L.) sequence under rainfed areas of North-east India
A field experiment was conducted for two consecutive years in organic blocks of Instructional-cum-Research farm of Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, following randomized block design with eight treatments and three replications. Results revealed that the stale seedbed + 25% reduced spacing + mulching with previous crop residues + one hand weeding (T4) in rice–rice–toria sequence lowered the weed density by 46.6, 45.7 and 24.4%, and weed dry weight by 71.9, 64.9 and 63.8% at 30, 60 days after transplanting/ sowing and at harvest, respectively as compared to weedy check (T8). Treatment T4 also increased the yield and yield attributing parameters as well as the B:C ratio over other treatments in rice–rice–toria sequence. Considering the effect on weed density, weed dry weight, productivity and B:C ratio, the practice of stale seedbed + 25% reduced spacing + mulching with previous crop residues + 1 hand weeding was the best cultural weed management practices in rice–rice–toria cropping sequence.
Distribution of potassium fractions in relation to different physiographic units of Haryana, Northwest India
The distribution of potassium (K) in soils varies across physiographic units due to differences in the intensity of soil-forming factors and processes within each unit. Therefore, we aimed at finding out the relationship between the forms of K (K forms) with physiographic units and the association of K forms with soil properties in the northwestern region of India. For this, horizon-wise soil samples were collected from pedons and soil samples were analyzed for physico-chemical properties and K forms. The results revealed that soil texture varied from sand to clay loam across the pedons. The soils were slightly to strongly alkaline in reaction (pH, 7.8-8.6) with cation exchange capacity (CEC) ranging from 3.51-17.74 cmol(p+)kg-1. The water-soluble potassium (WSK) ranged between 0.016-0.064 cmol(p+)kg-1, exchangeable potassium (EK) between 0.07-0.41 cmol(p+)kg-1, fixed potassium between 0.73-3.70 cmol(p+)kg-1, lattice K from 30.29-48.48 cmol(p+)kg-1 and total potassium from 31.03-52.18 cmol(p+)kg-1 in different horizons of pedons across the physiographic units. Water-soluble K and EK decreased with soil depth whereas fixed K and total K varied irregularly with depth. By and large, the results revealed that all the K forms followed the trend: old alluvial plains > recent alluvial plains > Shivalik hills valley > Shivalik foothills > piedmont plain > aeolian plain. The positive and significant correlation was observed among different forms of K which indicates the existence of interdependency and dynamic equilibrium among K forms.
Farmer response and awareness on soil health cards under Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan (VKSA) in Amritsar district of Punjab, India
The Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan (VKSA), carried out from 29.05.2025 to 12.06.2025, aimed to raise respondent awareness on climate-smart agricultural techniques, focusing on soil health cards (SHCs). Using raised hand counts, 2250 respondents were asked two sets of ten SHC awareness-based questions during VKSA camps. Correlation analysis and heat maps were used for analysis. Analysis revealed that in Attari, 66% respondents were aware of SHC benefits. However, 79.3% of Sarangdev, 70% of Bhattike, and 74% of Mucchal considered SHC effective. 67.3% of Shamnagar respondents obtained SHC reports after sowing, whereas 74.7% of Chamiari were uncertain about fertilizer use. 71.3% and 75.3% of respondents in Dhade and Kambo, respectively, mentioned issues with SHC training and distribution. Correlation analysis revealed that “awareness about SHC” has a moderate positive relationship with “remedial recommendations” (r =0.33) and “preventing fertilizer overuse” (r = 0.35). A positive correlation (r=0.50) between “crop-wise fertilizer plan” and “reduced cost of cultivation” highlights SHC’s economic impact. However, SHC awareness negatively correlates with “information on SHC” (r = -0.65) and “reduced production costs” (r = -0.42). Additionally, long intervals (r=0.51), awareness of SHC use (r=0.52), and distance (r=0.38) affect SHC efficiency. After discussing the constraints of judicious and climatesmart chemical fertilizer use, SHCs were found to be necessary to abate cultivation costs and upsurge the soil health in the region.
Impact of stubble burning on soil health and ecology: A comprehensive review
Rice-wheat cropping system being intensive, generates substantial post-harvest residue. The widespread practice of burning residue on-field, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, poses severe environmental and health challenges. This review synthesizes the detrimental effects of this stubble burning practice, which alone accounts for one-fourth of the air pollution. In 2017-18, an estimated 116 million tonnes of residue were combusted, releasing substantial greenhouse gases (176.1 Mt CO2) and hazardous particulate matter (0.453 Mt PM2.5), linked to respiratory ailments and cardiovascular risks. Furthermore, burning leads to significant annual losses of crucial soil nutrients, including 3850 million kg of organic carbon and substantial amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, while also harming soil microflora. Despite governmental bans, farmers often resort to burning due to its perceived efficiency and cost-effectiveness, especially with the limited 15-day window between rice and wheat cultivation. This paper explores sustainable alternatives such as in-situ residue incorporation using machinery like super seeder and happy seeder, composting (including vermicomposting to address the high C:N ratio of rice straw), bioenergy production (with potential to meet 17% of India’s energy demand, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Punjab), and biochar, which offers carbon sequestration and soil enhancement benefits. While wheat stubble finds some use as animal fodder (around 45% in parts of Punjab), rice stubble utilization is limited due to its silica content. Other potential applications in paper and mushroom industries are also discussed.
Productivity, nutrient uptake, and soil fertility status of acidic soil as influenced by organic amendments and inorganic nutrients applied in rainfed maize (Zea mays L.)
A full fledge experiment was conducted at ICAR–Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Assam, during the Kharif season, 2023–2024 to appraise the impact of organic amendments and inorganic nutrients on kernel yield, nutrient uptake as well as soil fertility in rainfed maize. The study was laid out in split-plot design with three organic inputs viz; control (no input), farmyard manure (FYM) at 10 t ha-1 and vermicompost (VC) at 2.5 t ha-1 at main plot treatments and four levels of inorganic fertilizers viz; control, 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF of NPK fertilizers, each combined with lime at 300 kg per hectare under subplot treatments. Results revealed that FYM at 10 t ha-1 outperformed other treatments in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) uptake in kernel and stover, as well as total nutrient uptake except the treatment applied with VC at 2.5 t ha-1. FYM also improved soil nutrient availability, with a magnitude of 12.06% (N), 5.35% (P), and 11.7% (K) higher over the control treatment. In addition, FYM also led to the highest microbial activity indicators: microbial biomass carbon (MBC) (199.03 μg C/g), dehydrogenase activity (DHA) (6.04 μg TPF/g/hour), and fluorescein diacetate activity (FDA) (2.92 μg fluorescein/g/hour). Among inorganic treatments, the application of 100% RDF with lime at 300 kg ha-1 significantly boosted N, P, and K uptake in kernel and stover, as well as total nutrient uptake compared to other treatments, though it was on par with 75% RDF + lime at 300 kg ha-1 for nitrogen uptake in stover. This treatment also improved soil available nutrients—18.9% (N), 9.4% (P), and 18.1% (K) higher than the control and recorded the highest microbial activity: MBC (210.80 μg C/g), DHA (6.39 μg TPF/g/ hr), and FDA (3 μg fluorescein/g/hr). Vermicompost under organic supplementation and 75% RDF + lime @ 300 kg ha-¹ under inorganic nutrient management enhanced kernel yield by 26.6% and 26.4%, respectively, over the control. The combination of FYM at 10 t ha-1 with 100% RDF + lime yielded the highest kernel output at 4.84 t ha-1. Thus, for the Northeastern region of Assam, either FYM at 10 t ha-1 or 100% RDF + lime individually enhanced nutrient uptake and soil fertility, while their integrated use was most effective in maximizing kernel yield.
Effect of organics with inorganic fertilizers on soil physico-chemical properties and enzymatic activities in rice-wheat cropping system
Field experiments were conducted to assess the effects of combined application of organics with chemical fertilizers on soil physico-chemical properties and enzyme activities of soil in rice-wheat cropping system on Alluvial soils of Varanasi. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design (RBD) with nine treatments comprised of control (no fertilizer), 100% NPK and seven combinations of 70% NPK with different organics viz., FYM, pressmud and vermicompost, applied on nitrogen (N) basis. The result revealed that the substitution of 30% N through pressmud and FYM equally significantly lowered soil pH and improved soil electrical conductivity, organic carbon and cation exchange capacity. Application of 70% RDF + 30% N through FYM and pressmud also increased water holding capacity and reduced soil bulk density creating a good soil condition for enhanced growth of both crops. Application of 70% RDF + 30% N through FYM and pressmud recorded highest level of DTPA extractable Cu (2.73; 2.93 mg kg-1), Mn (13.28; 11.17 mg kg-1) and Zn (2.28; 2.44 mg kg-1), however, the highest DTPA extractable Fe (48.66; 43.59 mg kg-1) was recorded with application of 70% RDF + 30% N by FYM.
Enhancing yield, quality, and water use efficiency in pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) through organic mulching
A field experiment was conducted during the late Hasta Bahar at Solapur, located at 17°10′ N latitude, 74°42′ E longitude, and an elevation of 483.5 meters above mean sea level. The objectives was to evaluate the effects of different organic mulches on yield, fruit quality, and water use efficiency (WUE) of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) and planted at a spacing of 4.5 × 4.0 meters. Three types of organic mulches i.e. wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, and safflower stalks were assessed under varying irrigation levels ranging from 0.20 to 0.60 *(ETr), in order to quantify their impact on crop performance and resource use efficiency. The physical, chemical, and hydrological properties of the soil profile at the experimental site were evaluated both before and after the study. Water was applied through a drip irrigation system at levels ranging from a minimum of 0.20*ETr to a maximum of 0.60*ETr under a split-plot design. The crop coefficient (Kc) and wetted area (WA) in percentage for third-year pomegranate trees ranged from 0.18 to 0.70 and 30 to 40%, respectively. Among all treatments, sugarcane bagasse mulch recorded the highest values for plant height, number of flowers, branches, stem diameter, and fruit count. The actual amount of water applied under different organic mulch treatments (20–60% ETr) was lower than the estimated crop water demand due to a reduction in surface evaporation. The actual water requirement (WR) of pomegranate trees varied from 7 to 40 liters per tree per day (Ld-¹t-¹) across different phenological stages. An irrigation level of 0.40 × ETr combined with sugarcane bagasse mulch proved to be the most effective treatment for enhancing growth and water use efficiency in third-year pomegranate trees.
Impact of paddy straw and Bio-decomposer with inorganic fertilizers on soil health in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
The study investigated the effect of inorganic fertilizers, paddy straw (rice residue), and Halo-CRD biodecomposer on the soil health of post-harvest wheat fields in the subtropical region of Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh during the Rabi season of 2019–20 and 2020-21. Results demonstrated the effectiveness of integrated residue management in improving soil physical, chemical and biological properties. There was a significant build-up of soil organic carbon in T7 (Rice residue treated with microbial decomposer Halo-CRD+ RDF@100%) 0.85 and 0.59% and 0.91 and 0.60% content in soil during both seasons of 2019– 20 and 2020-21. Maximum content of available N (257.26, 261.52 kg ha-1 and 249.43, 251.35 kg ha-1), available P (21.62, 22.14 kg ha-1 and 19.67, 19.85 kg ha-1) and K (219.21, 223.20 kg ha-1 and 181.38, 182.68 kg ha-1) was observed in treatment T7 during both seasons. The bacterial and fungal count ranged from 6.40 to 17.70 ×105 and 3.10 to 8.15×105 cfu g-1 dry soil, respectively. Incorporating microbial decomposers enhanced nutrient-use efficiency and soil health while reducing nutrient losses. The findings advocate integrating rice residue management with microbial decomposer Halo-CRD and balanced fertilization to enhance soil chemical, physical and biological properties, improve soil health, and mitigate residue burning’s environmental impacts.
Effect of conservation tillage on C and N fractions in soils having different textures under rice-wheat cropping system in Haryana
A difference in management practices often result in differences in biological, chemical and physical properties of soil which in turn, result in functional quality of the soil. The information about soil organic carbon and organic nitrogen fractions under different tillage systems is essential for sustainability of agricultural systems. Keeping this in view, the long-term impact of zero tillage in wheat under ricewheat cropping system at farmers’ fields was evaluated during 2020-2021 for monitoring changes in different fractions of soil organic carbon and nitrogen, and wheat productivity parameters in three texturally different soils (sandy loam, clay loam and loamy soil) of Haryana. The zero tillage practice in wheat increased the organic carbon content and carbon stock compared with conventional tillage in soils. Reduction in the intensity of tillage from conventional to zero resulted in decrease in bulk density of sub- surface soil. The zero tillage increased dissolved organic carbon, microbial biomass carbon light and heavy fractions of carbon in soils at both the depths. The light and heavy fraction carbon values were observed to be lower in lighter textured soil which increased with increase in fineness of the texture. The total nitrogen was highest in clay loam under zero tillage at 0-15 cm depth as compared to conventional tillage. Total hydrolysable nitrogen was found highest in clay loam followed by loam and sandy loam soils. Highest values of non-hydrolysable nitrogen, amino acid nitrogen, and hydrolysable ammonium nitrogen were observed in zero tillage practice as compared to conventional practice. The practice of zero tillage found to be effective in increasing yield of wheat in fine textured soils as compared to coarse textured. The results of the study suggested that the practice of zero tillage in wheat under rice-wheat cropping system may be adopted for sustaining the productivity of the cropping system
A study on integrated water resources management of Pamaluru Watershed Project, Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh
The Pamaluru area in the Kadapa district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, where the proposed watershed is located, has a total geographical area of 1209 ha. This project was chosen to alleviate the socioeconomic conditions of the local population as well as to conserve and promote both crop lands and cultivable degraded lands in the area. It intends to increase crop production to supply food, fodder, and other biomasses. The amount of rainfall to be made available for all the 52 weeks of the year meant for crop growth in the watershed is estimated at a probability level of 75%. It is advised to grow crops on 351 ha of watershed’s projected cultivable land. According to the state government’s recommendation, an irrigation schedule is developed based on the cropping pattern. The installation of submersible pumps to harvest the groundwater resources in the cropland is suggested for development of the watershed.
Land use and land cover change assessment in Balodabazar-Bhatapara district of Chhattisgarh using remote sensing and GIS techniques
Understanding the patterns of land use/land cover (LULC), Mapping and monitoring of LULC is vital for effective water resource management practice in a watershed. Multi-temporal land LULC change analysis is essential for agriculture, land, water and environmental planning and recourses management. Timely and accurate detection of LULC change is also important for the macro and micro level sustainable development plan of any watershed. Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) has been proven as an effective tool for identification of LULC patterns in a particular region and watershed. This study examines the spatial temporal change trend in LULC in the study area of Balodabazar- Bhatapara district of Chhattisgarh state. Using remote sensing data, socio-economic data, and field observations, spatiotemporal dynamics of land use and land cover changes in the study area has been studied. Geospatial data of SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) DEM (Digital Elevation Model), LISS-III and Sentinel-2 were used for this study. Multitemporal satellite imagery was used for the land use land cover change using IRS-P6 LISS III and Sentinel-2 for the year 2008 and 2021, respectively. The supervised classification technique was used for change detection analysis. The study area was classified into six classes; water bodies, agriculture, settlements, barren land, fallow land, and shrubs/natural vegetation and study was found that among the six identified classes water bodies, agriculture and settlements increased positively from 1.7% to 3.5% , 33.4% to 52.3% and 17.9% to 21.5% respectively while, barren land, fallow land, and shrubs/natural vegetation decreased from 2.8% to 2.2%, 18.8% to 14.8% and 25.4% to 5.7% over the last 13 years. This study might support land-use planners and policy makers to adopt the suitable land use management option for the project area.
Runoff suppression in freezing-thawing soils: The pivotal role of endemic bacterial inoculation
Soil and water loss, especially during freezing and thawing, is a major global issue, and bacteria, can serve as a practical biological approach to conserve soil and water resources. This study was designed to investigate the effects of endemic bacteria application on controlling runoff under freezing-thawing cycle conditions. Soil from the Badranlou Region in Iran was collected and transferred to small erosion plots. The most suitable endemic bacteria, identified from a soil microbank for soil and water conservation, were isolated, purified, proliferated, and inoculated onto the plots in six replicates with a 20% slope at the laboratory. Treatments—bacterial inoculation versus non-inoculation—were tested under a simulated single freezing–thawing cycle and 30 minute rainfall at about 70 mm h-¹. Results showed that, compared to the control, inoculation significantly reduced surface runoff volume and the runoff coefficient. After 60 days, inoculation increased the time to runoff by 102%, reduced runoff volume by 33%, extended the time to peak by 18%, and decreased the peak time by 83% (p<0.001). This supports bacterial inoculation as an effective method for controlling water loss. In conclusion, soil bacteria have high potential to improve runoff characteristics and reduce surface erosion in cold, mountainous regions.
Spatiotemporal analysis of soil erosion under land use and rainfall variability using RUSLE and RS-GIS techniques: A case study of Irga River Catchment, Jharkhand, India
Soil Erosion is a serious environmental concern, which severity can assess using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) alongside remote sensing and geographic information system (RSGIS) techniques. This study investigates the spatiotemporal changes in soil erosion potential between 2007 and 2017, due to the impact of rainfall patterns and land use/land cover (LULC) changes in the Irga River catchment, which lies in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau and is susceptible to severe soil erosion due to anthropogenic pressures. The study incorporates 20 years of average annual rainfall data (1998-2017) from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) to calculate the Rainfall-Runoff Erosivity factor (R) and utilises FAO soil data for soil erodibility factor (K) determination. Digital elevation models (DEM) are utilized to derive the Topographic factor (LS), and LULC maps for both years are used to create Crop Management (C) and Soil Conservation Practice (P) factor maps. Soil erosion estimates for 2017 averaged 0.2814 t/ha/year, with rates ranging from 0 to 36.1185 t/ha/year, while for 2007, the average was 0.3057 t/ha/year, with rates from 0 to 44.2149 t/ha/year. The study reveals that the catchment experiences very mild and slight erosion, with most wasteland in the northwest and north. Over a decade (2007-2017), the average erosion rate decreased by 8.6%, highlighting the impact of LULC changes and rainfall patterns on soil erosion.
Assessing soil testing awareness and practices among farmers in Sitapur: Implications for sustainable agriculture
Soil health is a cornerstone of sustainable agriculture, influencing crop yield, nutrient management, and overall agricultural productivity. Despite its importance, soil testing remains underutilized among rural farmers in India. This study, conducted by Krishi Vigyan Kendra-II, Sitapur, examines soil testing practices and awareness among 138 farmers from seven villages in the Biswan block of Sitapur district, Uttar Pradesh. Data were collected on farmers’ demographics, awareness of soil testing, barriers to adoption, and the impact of soil testing on agricultural practices. The results reveal that 73.9% of farmers have never conducted soil tests, primarily due to a lack of information (63.8%) and the unavailability of nearby laboratories (23.2%). However, 95.7% expressed interest in future soil testing, indicating a growing recognition of its importance. Soil test results from 36 farmers showed that 58.3% of soils were deficient in organic carbon, and 41.7% had low levels of available phosphorus. Statistical analyses, including chisquare tests and regression analysis, revealed significant associations between education level, landholding size, and soil testing adoption. These findings underscore the need for targeted outreach, accessible soil testing facilities, and enhanced extension services to promote sustainable farming practices in rural areas.
Productivity and profitability of wet season rice (Oryza sativa L.) as affected by varying levels of potassium humate foliar application in the Eastern coastal plain of Odisha
A field experiment was conducted during the kharif season of 2021 at Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, to assess the influence of foliar spray of potassium humate on productivity and profitability of rice. The nine treatment combinations were tested in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The results revealed that foliar application of potassium humate @ 3 g L-1 at tillering and PI stage (T7) recorded significantly higher yield attributes, grain and straw yield of rice over all treatments except T9 (potassium humate @ 4 g L-1 at tillering and PI stage) and T5 (potassium humate @ 2 g L-1 at tillering and PI stage). The highest profitability in terms of net return (` 55070 ha-1) and B: C (1.85) ratio were also observed with T7. Thus, foliar applications of potassium humate @ 3 g L-1 at the tillering and PI stage of rice were found to be more productive and profitable in the eastern coastal plain of Odisha.
Synergistic effects of biochar-coated urea and enriched biochar on nitrogen management in sweet corn
The study was conducted at GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, during the Kharif season of 2020 to evaluate the effects of novel fertilizers, specifically biochar-coated urea (BCU) and enriched biochar (EB), on sweet corn (Zea mays L. saccharata). The experiment was arranged in a randomized block design with eight treatments, including no nitrogen (N) application control (T1); 100% recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) through conventional fertilizer + conventional urea (CU) (T2) ); 100% RDF with vermicompost (VC) 4t ha-1+CU (T3); 100% RDF with EB 2t ha-1+BCU (T4); 75% RDF with VC 4t ha-1 +CU (T5); 75% RDF with EB 2t ha-1+BCU (T6); 75% RDF with VC 4t ha-1+CU+micronutrient mixture (T7) and 75% RDF with EB 2t ha-1+BCU micronutrient mixture (T8) all replicated three times. The highest dehusked cob yield and N uptake were achieved with 100% RDF + EB treatment at 2t ha-1+ BCU. This treatment also exhibited the highest N-use efficiency (NUE), outperforming conventional fertilizer applications by 30%. Applying vermicompost (VC) at 4 t/ha + 100% RDF produced comparable results. Additionally, significantly higher total N uptake at harvest was observed with the 100% RDF + EB at 2t ha-1+ BCU treatment. These findings underscore the effectiveness of integrating BCU and EB in enhancing sweet corn yield, N uptake. Hence, these novel fertilizer combinations can contribute to sustainable agricultural productivity and improved soil health.