The Journal regularly publishes refereed research articles, reviews, research notes and short communications of high impact in basic and applied research, development and management issues on soil and water conservation as well as watershed management and policy aspects of agriculture and rural development. Comprehensive review articles in the area of soil and water conservation and management, case studies and success stories are also published in the Journal.
On publication in JSWC, the copyrights on the full contents of the paper will be of Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi.
Comparative study of various cropping system for their system productivity, profitability and soil fertility under north Gujarat conditions
The experiment was conducted on diversification of cropping system as component of small holder farming systems during 2019-20 to 2022-2023 at Centre for Research on Integrated Farming Systems, SDAU, Sardarkrushinagar to identify need based crop sequences to suit resources available and needs of arid eco-system of North Gujarat. Different ten cropping systems were tested during the study period. The crop sequence fodder maize-fodder oat- fodder pearlmillet recorded highest system productivity (kg/ha/day), followed by fodder sorghum-lucerne- lucerne continue. In case of system profitability (`/ ha/day), water productivity(kg/ha-mm), nutrient productivity(kg/kg) were highest under fodder sorghum-lucerne- lucerne continue crop sequence. Employment generation (Mandays/ha) was found highest under groundnut- wheat- green gram crop sequence. Soil available nutrients like N, P2O5, organic carbon and water holding capacity were found highest and bulk density was found lowest under sunhemp-fenugreek- green gram crop sequence. The lowest system productivity, system profitability, and water productivity were recorded under sunhemp-fenugreek-green gram.
Copyright (c) 2026 Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi
Influence of liquid organic manures on soil properties of garden pea (Pisum sativum L. var. hortense)
A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of different liquid organic manures on soil properties of garden pea at the Instructional cum Research Farm, Biswanath College of Agriculture, AAU, Biswanath Chariali in the rabi season during 2024-2025. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with seven treatments and three replications. The study revealed that there was significant difference among the treatments with respect to different soil parameters. The treatment T4 (Vermiwash @10%) increased soil pH (5.51), T5 (Jeevamrit @5%) markedly reduced bulk density (1.35 g cm-3), enhanced organic carbon (0.84%) and soil microbial population (25.29×10 6 cfu g-1 soil ) while RDF recorded the highest available N (424.48 kg ha-1), P2O5 (38.58 kg ha-1) and K2O (334.62 kg ha-1). These results indicate that although RDF ensures rapid nutrient availability, organic inputs such as Jeevamrit and Vermiwash significantly improve soil quality, emphasizing their potential for sustainable soil fertility management in organic production systems.
Effect of soil and foliar applied nutrients on growth, yield and nutrient content of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.)
A field experiment was conducted during rabi season of 2024-25 at Soil Research Farm, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, to study the effect of soil and foliar application of nutrients on growth, yield and nutrient content of Indian mustard. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with 10 treatments in three replications. The results of the study revealed that application of RDF along with NPK (19:19:19) and seaweed extract at flowering and siliqua formation stages (T10) significantly increased the growth parameters, yield and yield attributes along with an improved harvest index of the mustard over control. The seed yield, stover yield and harvest index of mustard in T10 increased significantly to 2095 and 5754 kg ha-1 and 26.6%, respectively over control. The highest NPK content in seed (2.42, 0.51, 1.01%) and stover (0.77, 0.34, 2.82%) was also observed in T10 where RDF + NPK (19:19:19) and seaweed extract at flowering and siliqua formation stages was applied which was statistically at par with T9, i.e. NPK content of 2.32, 0.45, 0.94% in seed and 0.72, 0.32, 2.79% in stover, respectively. Application of RDF + 0.2% B + 1% K2SO4 at flowering and siliqua formation (T8) showed highest concentration of sulphur (0.44% in seed and 0.27% in stover) and boron (26.99% in seed and 24.61% in stover) in both seed as well as stover in mustard over control. Overall, it can be concluded that combined soil and foliar nutrient treatments could enhanced the absorption of nutrients, especially during critical growth stages and thereby sustaining the mustard yield.
Application of soil resistivity meter in site suitability analysis for litchi cultivation as a land management tool
The present study investigates the role of soil resistivity in determining site suitability for litchi (Litchi chinensis) cultivation in the Pathankot district of Punjab. The Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) method, using a Schlumberger array, was employed across nine litchi orchards located in different geographical zones of the district. Soil resistivity data were recorded up to a depth of 100 meters and analyzed to characterize subsurface lithology. The results revealed significant variations in soil resistivity, indicating differences in lithological composition such as clay, sand, boulders, and rock. The central zones exhibited more homogeneous subsoil profiles with thick clay layers, offering favorable conditions for litchi root development and consistent groundwater availability. In contrast, the northern hilly and southern lowlying regions displayed heterogeneous formations with high-resistivity zones containing rocks and boulders, indicating poor water retention and limited root penetration. These findings were crossvalidated with well log data from the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and used to create a 3D lithological model of the district. The study concludes that central Pathankot, with its uniform subsurface characteristics and higher soil moisture retention, is most suitable for litchi cultivation. Thus, soil resistivity proves to be an effective, non-invasive tool for agricultural land evaluation, irrigation planning, and sustainable land management.
Spatial interpolation of soil physico-chemical properties in major growing area of cumin and coriander based cropping system
Soil formation factors and process provide an insight for spatial variability of soil physical and chemical properties and at places if got influenced by anthropogenic activities. The goal of this study was to apply to use descriptive and geostatistical methods to quantify the spatial variability of 148 soil samples collected from 4 seed spices growing regions for soil physico-chemical properties, viz. pH, organic carbon, EC, available N, P, K, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, exchangeable Na, CEC, and particle size classes. The coefficient of variation for soil pH was the lowest (5%), while EC had the large variation (151%). The soil’s texture triplet (4-3-0), which consists of four (coarse fractions), three (moderate) fractions, and none (fine fraction), was estimated using information entropy (IE). The spatial correlation of soil Zn, Mn and Cu followed a spherical model among the several semi-variogram while DTPA - Fe showed an exponential model. The nugget: sill ratio for geostatistical analysis ranges from 0% for soil DTPA - Mn and Cu to 66% (DTPAFe). Cross-validation data on prediction errors showed that ordinary kriging (r = 0.891, P < 0.01) was superior to inverse distance weighting (r = 0.821, P < 0.01) for interpolating these micronutrients. The findings indicated that it is possible to apply the chosen fit model in any eco-regions for micronutrient cations of diverse origin.
Challenges and opportunities in soil carbon trading promoted to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and climate change mitigation: A perspective
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UNIPCC 2007) held that it is important for agriculture sector to adapt to such climate changes particularly for food and water security. Paris Agreement was adopted by India in 2015 which aimed to strengthen international cooperation in climate action and provided for creation of global carbon market to mitigate climate change impacts. The Ministry of Forest, Environment and Climate Change Government of India framed programs, policies and regulations to address the climate change threats and mitigation strategies. The Government of India and FAO took an initiative on transforming Rice-Wheat system with regenerative practices. The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare (2023) prepared draft green credit program implementation rules under which the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) was included as one of the nine missions outlined under National Action Plan on Climate Change. The soil carbon trading is now carried out under NMSA. Punjab and Haryana are central to India’s rice-wheat production system, vital for national food security and agricultural exports. However, this intensive system faces increasing stress due to groundwater depletion, stubble burning, soil degradation, and climate vulnerability. Agriculture practices account for about 20% India’s total emission and majority of which comes from crop residue burning or agriculture biomass burning. Soil carbon credit and trading for climate change gradually emerged as a prominent tool to reduce green house emissions. This attracted the attention of several companies dealing with soil carbon trading based on elimination of residue burning but incorporation in soil to increase tradable soil carbon. The paper highlights the experience of monitoring and evaluation of a soil carbon credit project based on direct sown rice in Punjab and Haryana by a US based team and encapsulate salient results of a comprehensive review of literature on challenges and opportunities in soil carbon trading.
Design, development and performance evaluation of a perpetual induced water wheel pumping system
A water wheel pumping system with induced perpetual motion has been developed and tested. A water wheel that rotates under the action of flowing water due to its kinetic energy exerted when water strikes the face of blades, while an induced perpetual mechanism may further enhance the overall performance of the system. This innovative system demonstrates the potential of renewable energy (specifically the kinetic energy of flowing water) for water lifting and for operating drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation systems by effectively utilizing the natural flow of water. It can conserve resources, reduce dependence on conventional energy sources, and serve as a suitable alternative in remote and inaccessible areas, provided that the favourable site conditions are met. As the wheel rotates, water enters the inlet pipe, resulting in a water and air column being created within the coil due to the successive intake of water and air. Air, being compressible in nature, acts like a spring, thereby assisting in pushing the water toward the centre of the wheel and getting finally discharged through a housing pipe. The induced water pumping system was tested at a 1.2 m/s flow velocity under different operating heads for assessing its performance. When the velocity of flowing water is constant at 1.2 m/s and delivery head (total head) is varying from 3.74 m to 3.98 m, it was observed that the discharge rate of water decreases from 0.42 lps to 0.32 lps, and the RPM of the wheel also decreases from 23 to 21. It was observed that the induction of perpetual motion resulted in an increase in the RPM of the water wheel under the given flow velocity conditions. Furthermore, the most suitable way of inducing perpetual motion was achieved by fixing half-filled two-litre water bottles at 90° on both sides of the water wheel.
Integration of geospatial techniques and AHP for groundwater potential and quality assessment in the Brahmani River Basin, India
Groundwater is one of the most significant resources that is increasingly coming under pressure due to industrialisation, rising population, and a changing climate. This study aims to evaluate this groundwater resource quality and delineate potential areas in the Brahmani River basin situated in Orissa, India, using geospatial techniques in combination with the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). Several thematic maps were created to depict rainfall, land use, geological features, slope, drainage density, lineaments, and soil texture,to assess the values of the Groundwater Potential Zone Index(GWPI). According to chloride, electrical conductivity, total hardness and other content in such water, it was further analysed for the development of the Water Quality Index (WQI) for each class. Almost 88% of the study area had displayed potential for moderate to good groundwater resources, whereas 44% of the region had very good water quality. The study affirmed the use of the AHP and GIS technologies for achieving sustainable groundwater management goals and also recommended that more effort be made to develop an advanced modeling technique for enhanced resource planning.
Identification of groundwater potential zones using geoinformatics for Nagpur region
Water, a vital natural resource and essential component for all living organisms, exists in two primary forms: surface water and groundwater. Groundwater, a significant global resource, is unevenly distributed worldwide. Enhancing groundwater recharge is a fundamental hydrological parameter for assessing, managing, and modelling groundwater resources. However, determining recharge rates is a complex and challenging task, despite its crucial role in recharge assessments. The current study has been conducted in Nagpur region. The groundwater potential of the Nagpur region was assessed using remote sensing and GIS by bringing together several thematic maps. The study covers an area of about 195.57 km², which includes small water bodies (4.12 km²) and narrow valleys (0.38 km²). The land elevation across the region varies from roughly 217 m to 331 m above mean sea level. Four main geological formations are present, with Deccan Trap being the most widespread, covering nearly 44% of the area, followed by Granite Gneiss, the Lameta Group, and Alluvium. Most of the landscape is characterized by pediplain terrain, accounting for about 37% of the area, and gravelly sand soils are commonly found. The region is largely gentle in nature, with almost half of the area having a very mild slope of 0–3%. Agricultural land occupies around 16% of the total area. The analysis shows that more than half of the region falls under a moderate groundwater recharge potential. Based on these observations, the study highlights practical water-conservation measures. It recommends nala bunding along first-order streams to reduce soil erosion and runoff, and the construction of check dams on second- and third-order streams to store water and improve groundwater recharge.
Assessment of soil erodibility under different land use systems in the hill region of Assam, India
Soil erosion resulting from unsustainable land-use changes and forest-to-cropland conversion poses a critical environmental threat in the tropical hilly landscapes of Northeast India, popularly known as North Eastern Hill region. This study evaluates soil erodibility across different land use categories viz. natural forest, jhum land, rubber plantation, crop land (rice/maize), agroforestry (home garden) and bamboo plantation in Karbi Anglong district of Assam using multiple soil erodibility indices. Results indicated notable shifts in surface soil texture from clay loam in natural forests to sandy clay loam under plantations and croplands. The mean dispersion ratio peaked in rice/maize croplands (20.30), followed by jhum lands (19.98), bamboo plantations (18.09), rubber plantations (17.52), home gardens (17.21), and forest soils (16.34). Erosion ratio was highest in rice/maize cropland (17.72), while other land uses ranged between 13.20 and 15.75. The erosion susceptibility followed the order: rice/maize cropland> jhum land > rubber plantation > bamboo plantation > home garden > forest. Soils under all land uses were found to be highly prone to erosion, with the exception of forest soils and tree based home garden, which exhibited relatively low erodibility.
Effect of tillage and precision nutrient placement on below-ground biomass, nutrient content and yield of maize (Zea mays L.)
A comprehensive experiment was conducted at ICAR–Indian Agricultural Research Institute in New Delhi, during the Kharif season, 2022–2023 to assess effect of tillage and precision nutrient placement on below ground biomass and nutrient content of maize (Zea mays L.). Experiment was conducted in split plot design with 3 main plot treatments of different tillage viz., T1, (conventional tillage); T2, (once rotavator as minimum tillage) and T3, (zero tillage) and 4, precision nutrient application options N1, 50% RDF as point placement; N2, 75% RDF as band placement; N3, 100% RDF as band placement and N4, 100% RDF as broadcasting were tested in subplots and replicated thrice. Results revealed that minimum tillage as 49.50% fresh root weight (g plant-1), 102.7% root dry weight (g plant-1), 17.4% root length (cm), 24.2% root surface area (cm² cm-³), 46.49% root volume(cm3), 21.21% root mass density as compared to conventional tillage (T1) which is mainly due to crop residue incorporated in minimum tillage. The highest N, P and K content in maize grain and stover were recorded with minimum tillage, while the lowest content of all these nutrients was recorded with conventional tillage. The 100% RDF through band placement (N3) resulted 45.59% fresh root weight (g plant-1), 32.7% root dry weight (g plant-1), 21.72% root volume (cm3), 11.4% root length (cm), 20% root surface area (cm² cm-³), 20% root mass density compared to 100% RDF as broadcasting (N4). While 100% RDF of band placement yielded the maximum N, P, and K content in maize grains and stover, it was statistically equivalent to 50% RDF of point placement. Strong positive connections between maize grain yield, yield characteristics, and nutritional content are found in the study, underscoring their combined importance in raising productivity. The findings indicated that the adoption of minimum tillage coupled with precise point nutrient placement significantly enhanced below-ground biomass and nutrient accumulation in maize (Zea mays L.) during the kharif season, while enabling a 50% reduction in fertilizer use efficiency without compromising crop performance.
Potential of leguminous tree species to restore the degraded soil
The essential basic resource needed to satisfy the wide range of human needs is natural resources where one of the most vital resources for human survival is soil. It is among the biotic elements that are essential to maintaining an ecosystem’s food security. A significant determinant of agricultural productivity is soil. Today, in areas where civilization is growing, the soil has all but died. In India, over 30% of the land is degraded. The symbiotic relationship between Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and nodulating N‚ -fixing bacteria allows leguminous tree species to recover the deteriorated soil. From the present discussion, information generated that soil was improved under legume tree species by increasing the OC and available N, P, and K and also by reducing the bulk density of soil. Moreover, it has a better capacity to grow quickly and withstand degraded land; thus, leguminous tree species have the potential to establish and grow in degraded land and improve soil health through the nitrogen fixation nature and organic matter more than non-leguminous tree species. From the literature, several researchers have reported that leguminous tree species are one of the best alternatives for the reclamation of soil. Leguminous trees, i.e., Prosopis juliflora, Dalbergia sisoo, Glyricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Albizia lebbeck, Prosopis cineraria, Pithecellobium macradenium, etc., are important tree species for reclaiming the soil health by adding organic matter in soil from the leaf litter and fixing nitrogen. These leguminous tree species not only improved soil health but also have multipurpose use, which helps the grower to generate income.
Copyright (c) 2025 Soil Conservation Society of India, New Delhi
Application of photogrammetric technique for deriving topographic information in Delta region
Digital elevation models (DEM) are crucial for conducting topographical studies in land and water resources management, particularly in flood management. The delta section of a basin is consistently susceptible to flooding due to its low gradient, which poses challenges in analyzing the topographical data. This study attempts to develop a relatively accurate DEM from Cartosat-1 stereo image pairs for delta region of Mahanadi basin. Photogrammetry technique is meticulously performed with minimum RMSE of 2 to 3 pixels. A 10m×10m generated DEM was resampled to 30m×30m DEM for comparison with SRTM DEM. DEM quality was assessed with reference to surveyed cross-section, river embankment profile and ground control points using statistical parameter and accuracy measures such as root mean square error (RMSE) and mean average error (MAE). For river cross-sections, MAE and RMSE of Cartosat- 1 DEM, i.e., 2.70 m and 3.38 m, respectively are found to be lower than that of SRTM DEM, i.e., 4.26 m and 5.32 m, respectively. Statistical and graphical comparison infers that the generated Cartosat-1 DEM is better in representing river bed than that of the SRTM DEM; however, both the DEMs have similar representation for the floodplain elevation.
Productivity, water use and economics as influenced by irrigation scheduling and fertilizer management practices in Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) under drip irrigation
A field experiment was conducted during winter seasons of 2018-19 and 2019-20 at SKUAST-Jammu to study the effect of different irrigation schedules and fertilizer management on productivity, water use and economics in Broccoli. The experiment was laid out in strip plot design with three replications. The treatments comprised of three drip irrigation schedules in vertical strips viz., drip irrigation at 100% ETc; drip irrigation at 75% ETc and drip irrigation at 50% ETc and four fertilizer management practices in horizontal strips viz., 100% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer; 75% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 25% through liquid fertilizers; 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through liquid fertilizers and 25% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 75% through liquid fertilizers and control was IW / CPE=1.0 with RDF as solid fertilizer. Results showed that drip irrigation at 100% ETc in broccoli provided significantly higher yield and saved 13.08% irrigation water over control. Likewise, in sub plots (horizontal strips) application of 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through liquid fertilizers using liquid fertilizers recorded significantly higher curd yield in broccoli. This treatment increased curd yield of broccoli by 26.34% over control. The drip irrigation water was saved to the tune of 13.08, 32.25 and 51.40%, respectively under 100% ETc, 75% ETc and 50% ETc irrigation schedules over Control (IW/CPE=1.0). The net returns were highest in the treatment 100% ETc alongwith 50% RFD of NPK as solid fertilizer + 50% through fertigation (Rs. 4,61,341.50) and lowest in control (Rs. 2,31,313.00) whereas the benefit: cost ratio under respective treatments was 4.59 and 2.90.
Predicting the effective timing of sugarcane nitrogen fertilization based on ten-year weekly growth analysis
Nitrogen is a fundamental macronutrient for sugarcane cultivation, critically influencing physiological processes and biomass accumulation, despite comprising only approximately one percent of the plant’s dry weight at maturity. In the Imam Khomeini Agro-Industry complex, located in the Shuaibiya region of Khuzestan, Iran, nitrogen fertilization is applied in four split doses from April to July to improve efficiency and mitigate environmental impacts. This study in the 2022-2023 crop year in the Shuaibieh region of Khuzestan Province, Iran aimed to determine the optimal timing of nitrogen application stages based on nitrogen uptake and growth response in commercial sugarcane cultivars. A comprehensive analysis was conducted using crop logging data collected over a ten-year period, with a focus on average weekly growth trends for both plant cane (P) and Ratoon cane (R). The results identified specific growth stages during which nitrogen application had the most significant impact on plant development and productivity for each cultivar and crop age. These findings provide a practical and data-driven basis for optimizing nitrogen fertilization schedules, enhancing nitrogen use efficiency, and promoting sustainable sugarcane farming practices in the region.
Long-term effect of different cropping systems on physical quality of soil in North-western India
Soil physical quality is an important indicator of a good soil environment for plant growth with optimum aeration, water movement, and nutrient transformations. The puddling practices in rice (Oryza sativa L.) crop, degrades the physical quality of soil through destruction of soil structure, reduction of soil porosity, and formation of hardpan. Also, the other cereal-cereal crop rotations, intensive tillage, and removal of crop residues affect the soil physical parameters. So, ten cropping systems viz. rice-wheat (R-W), maize- wheat (M-W); basmati rice-wheat-cowpea green manure (Br-W-Cgm); maize-mustard/gm-cowpea gm (M-Ms/gm-Cgm); maize-potato-spring groundnut (M-Po-Sg); maize-peas-spring groundnut (M-P-Sg); maize+cowpea (fodder)-maize fodder-oats fodder-sathi maize fodder ((M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf); sorghum multicut fodder-barseem fodder (Sf-Bf); maize (cobs/fodder)-potato-onion ((M(c/f)-Po-On); baby corn- potato-okra (Bc-Po-Ok) were studied during 2020-21 to assess their impact on physical quality of soil. Significantly higher soil pH in M-Po-Sg and higher aggregate associated carbon, porosity, maximum water holding capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity (SHC) and soil moisture retention in M-Ms/ gm-Cgm were observed. ((M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf) showed significantly higher soil organic carbon, mean weight diameter, and water stable aggregates (WSA) while the lowest was reported in R-W. The lowest soil electrical conductivity (EC) was observed in M-Ms/gm-Cgm and (M+C)f-Mf-Of-SMF. Significantly higher bulk density was reported in (R-W) while lowest in M-Ms/gm-Cgm. Soil quality index (SQI) was higher in M-Ms/gm-Cgm followed by (M+C)f-Mf-Of-Smf, Sf-Bf, while lowest in R-W. The order of overall contribution of selected indicators to the SQI was 36.5%, 29.0%, 25.0% and 9.5% by WSA, SHC, pH, and EC, respectively. It is concluded that inclusion of green manures/fodders/legumes in rotations with cereal crops could improve the physical quality of soil compared to cereal-cereal rotations.
Soil chemical properties under poplar-wheat agroforestry system in tarai lands of Uttarakhand
An investigation was carried out to study the chemical characteristics of soil under poplar-based agroforestry system at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand during winter season of 2018. The poplar plants were about four and a half years old. Soil pH, soil electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic carbon (SOC) and contents of available macronutrients viz., N, P and K in surface soil (0–15 cm and 15–30 cm depth) were determined. Soil pH and EC were decreased whereas soil organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium were higher under poplar- based agroforestry system as compared to open farming system. Highest nitrogen content was present under agroforestry system compared to open farming. At 0-15 cm the highest nitrogen measured was in treatment-1 plot (252.9 kg/ha) and lowest in treatment-8 plot (250.7 kg/ha). In open farming system the measured nitrogen content measured was 247.3 kg/ha. The maximum available phosphorus recorded was in treatment-2 plot (21.69 kg/ha) followed by treatment-4 plot (21.54 kg/ha). The agroforestry system recorded higher available potassium levels compared to the open farming system. Among the treatments, the treatment-5 plot showed the highest potassium content (219.6 kg/ha), followed by treatment-1 (219.3 kg/ha), while treatment-7 had the lowest (218.7 kg/ha); in contrast, the open farming system recorded 207.8 kg/ha. Therefore, the long-term adoption of poplar-based agroforestry system helps in improving the soil chemical properties as well as nutrient status.
Estimation of spatio-temporal variability of groundwater balance components in Kupwara district, Kashmir
Groundwater is a critical resource for sustaining agriculture, domestic supply, and ecosystems in the Himalayan region, yet its availability is increasingly threatened by climatic variability, land-use change, and unsustainable extraction. This study assessed the spatial and temporal variability of groundwater balance components in Kupwara district, using the WetSpass-M water balance model. The model integrated meteorological data (rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, temperature, wind speed), land use/land cover, soil texture, topography, and groundwater depth to simulate actual evapotranspiration (AET), surface runoff, and groundwater recharge at monthly, seasonal, and annual scales from 2012 to 2024. Results revealed that annual rainfall averaged 655.7 mm, of which 38–40% was lost to AET, 12% contributed to runoff and 18% percolated as recharge, underscoring the recharge-supportive nature of the basin. Seasonal analysis showed that summer contributed the largest rainfall (291 mm) but was dominated by ET and runoff, while spring exhibited the highest recharge efficiency (43% of rainfall). Autumn and winter emerged as water-stressed seasons, with minimal recharge and ET losses exceeding rainfall inputs. Spatial patterns indicated recharge hotspots in the central and southern basin, while high-runoff zones in the northeast posed localized flood and erosion risks. The study concludes that it maintains a positive water balance but is subject to strong seasonal and spatial heterogeneity. These findings provide a scientific basis for sustainable groundwater management, emphasizing the need to couple ET-reducing practices with recharge-enhancing measures. The outputs also serve as essential input for predictive groundwater models, supporting adaptive strategies under changing climate and land-use pressures.
Digital soil mapping of Jethuwal, Punjab, India for climate-smart fertilization in field crops
To support climate-smart fertilization, the current attempt intends to create digital soil maps (DSMs) of Jethuwal village of Verka block, Amritsar, Punjab. DSM for different soil physico-chemical and macro nutrients were prepared using ArcGIS software by first selecting 30 boundary points and thereafter 132 soil sampling points (0-15 cm) with coordinates by using GPS-60 (GARMIN) to address these geographical soil differences. Collected soil samples were analyzed in the soil and water testing lab of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, for electrical conductivity, soil pH, soil organic carbon, available phosphorus, and potassium, respectively. First, an outer boundary map was produced, and DSMs were prepared by superimposing different values for different nutrients. Analysis revealed that the village had a sandy loam texture, a pH range of 6.89 to 6.85, an EC range of 0.31 to 0.69 m-mhos cm-1, SOC reported to be lower in 87.2% of samples, available P ranging from 13.0 to 16.8 mg kg-1, and finally available K with a range of 100 to 188 mg kg-1. Underground water also reported to be of good quality. For SOC, the samples’ Parker Nutrient Index (PNI) values were reported to be lower for soil organic carbon (1.11) while higher for available P and K (3.00). The correlation table reveals only weak associations among soil parameters, with pH slightly influencing available P (0.24) and EC weakly linked to SOC, P, and K. Therefore, DSM- based crop fertilization is required for practicing judicious, climate-smart, and plant-need-based chemical fertilization in Jethuwal, which on one side reduces overall costs of cultivation while on the other improves the soil health.
Spatial variability of soil macronutrients at farm-scale in irrigated plains under rice-wheat cropping system
Soil characteristics vary drastically even over short distances. For sustainable crop production, farm- level precision nutrient management necessitates an understanding of the spatial variability of soil nutrients. However, small-scale nutrient data are insufficient for effective management on farms. Grid- based sampling offers a viable approach for large-scale assessment to delineate nutrient-deficient zones. A study was conducted at Chakroi Farm, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu (SKUAST-J), to evaluate the spatial variability of soil macronutrients at the farm scale. The highest variability was recorded for sulphate-S (SO4-S) in both surface (0-15 cm; 70.27%) and sub-surface (15-30 cm; 79.94%) layers, whilst the least was recorded for available-N (18.45%) and available- P (19.47%). In the surface layer, the spherical model was the best fit for available N, whereas the exponential model fit all other macronutrients. In the sub-surface layer, the Gaussian model was the best fit for available P, K, and SO4-S, while the exponential model best described available N. Approximately 50% of the farm area had medium levels of available-N, with the remainder in the low range. Over 40% of the area had available-P between 11–15 mg kg-1. Surface soil available K predominantly ranged from 50–75 mg kg-1, while sub-surface K was lower in the western region (25–50 mg kg-1), increasing toward the southeast. Most SO4-S values exceeded the critical threshold of 10 mg kg-
Remote sensing and GIS approach for estimation of water spread area of surface waters of Srinagar city in Kashmir Himalayan region
The present study quantifies decadal changes (2000–2020) in the water spread area of Srinagar’s major surface waters (Dal Lake, Nigeen Lake, Anchar, Gilsar–Khushalsar, Brari Nambal, Nallah Amir Khan, Jhelum River) using multi temporal LANDSAT imagery and ASTER GDEM. Imagery was atmospherically corrected (Dark Object Subtraction) and geometrically aligned; water bodies were delineated via normalized difference water index (NDWI) with a threshold of ≥0.3, and refined by MNDWI to reduce built up misclassification. Supervised maximum likelihood classification and Otsu thresholding were applied; overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient were assessed against high resolution reference points (n=150), yielding 92.4% accuracy and κ=0.89. Results show a 21.5% average decline in lake and wetland area, with the steepest loss in Brari Nambal (41%) and modest recovery in Dal Lake (+1.9%) post 2014 flood remediation. Correlation with long term precipitation and built up area expansion (derived from 2000–2020) indicates strong links (r=0.78, p<0.01) between urban sprawl and water loss. The study recommend annual NDWI monitoring using Sentinel 2, integration of LULC change detection, and community based conservation under India’s Jal Shakti Abhiyan to mitigate ongoing degradation.
Conservation of in-situ soil moisture through non-woven geo-jute mulches: A case study under North Eastern Hilly Region of India
To enhance water productivity of winter crops under hilly terrain of North Eastern India, resource conservation techniques need to be adhered. Bio-mulching is a possible solution to overcome soil moisture deficits to a great extent. Inclusion of non-woven jute as mulching material apart from regular crop and weed residues is an innovative approach to address this issue. To assess the effectiveness of different non-woven jute mulches a field trial was conducted during winter season 2023-24 at Meghalaya. The experiment was conducted in a split-plot design with three jute mulch treatments and a control under main plot treatment [(No mulch (M1); 400 gsm mulch (M2); 500 gsm mulch (M3) and 600 gsm mulch (M4)] along with three pea cultivars [IPFD-99-13 (V1); IPFD-1-10 (V2) and IPF-99-25 (V3)] under sub-plot treatment and replicated thrice. To estimate the comparative efficacy of non-woven jute mulch equal volume of water was applied at four critical stages of crop. The average increase in soil moisture content as compared to un-mulch plot (M1) was 12.6, 11.9 and 4.6% for M4, M3 and M2, respectively. As compared to M1 the enhancement in yield was 141.25, 118.03 and 93.71% for M4, M3 and M2, respectively. The 600 gsm mulch (M4) mulch registered the highest water productivity at 73.42 kg ha-1 mm-1, similarly the registered values of water productivity with cultivars IPFD-99-25 and IPFD-1-10 were 65.50 and 56.16 42 kg ha-1 mm-1, respectively. Based on the experimental findings, it may be suggested that, 600 gsm non- woven jute mulch may be used with IPFD-99-25, which ensure a better winter pulse production.
Pedogenic characterization of soils of Eastern Region of the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam
An investigation was carried out in the alluvium derived soils of Eastern part of the Brahmaputra valley comprising two agro-climatic zones (Upper Brahmaputra valley zone and North bank plain zone) to characterize and classify the soils in the year 2023-2024. In total, five soil profiles were exposed from each zone (P1-P5 in UBVZ) and (P6-P10 in NBPZ) with a total number of 55 soil samples, collected from the ten profiles which were analyzed for morphological and physicochemical properties. Distinct variation was observed in the both morphological and physicochemical properties between the soils of UBVZ and NBPZ. The colour of the soils was dark brown to brownish yellow with a dominant hue of 10YR, with a value ranging from 4-6 and the chroma lying in the range of 2-5.The soil texture was mostly loam to clay loam in UBVZ and loamy sand to sandy loam in NBPZ. The soil structure was found to be medium to firm and weak sub angular blocky throughout all the profiles. The surface horizons pertained considerable higher amount of SOC (0.08-1.61%), maintaining a steady reduction down the profile. The soils were extremely to moderately acidic (pH 4.20-5.92) with a substantial amount of Ex. H+ and Ex Al3+ [0.08-0.89 and 0.74-2.11 cmol (P+ ) kg-1] respectively. The overall dominance of the concentration of exchangeable cations were as follows; Ca2+>Mg2+>Na+ =K+ . The CEC of the soils varied from 4.2-11.4 cmol (P+ ) kg-1. The content of basic cations was higher in soils of UBVZ compared to NBPZ thereby leading to higher PBS in UBVZ. The crystalline form of Fe oxides extracted by Na dithionite (Fed) was highest (0.37% to 3.02%) among all the fractions of other pedogenic oxides of Fe and Al, with a higher amount in UBVZ. The soils of UBVZ were mostly classified as Inceptisols except one profile (P2) while Entisols dominated the NBPZ.
Development of an Artificial Neural Network model for predicting the infiltration rate of soils in the Chhattisgarh plains
The infiltration rate is an important element in research concerning soil, hydrology, ecology, and agriculture. It serves as the fundamental input variable for models that examine water movement. Its significance lies in being the main input for water flow modeling. This study assessed the stable infiltration rate across various soil types in the Chhattisgarh Plains by using a multilayer artificial neural network, known as “ANN,” implemented through the back propagation algorithm. The data collected included bulk density, moisture content, and the proportions of sand, silt, and clay. An unseen dataset was utilized to evaluate the performance of the ANN models after the training phase. Philip created a model incorporating sand, silt, bulk density, and infiltration rate to ascertain the infiltration rate for assessment purposes. The findings from this research demonstrate a notable correspondence between the gathered data and the ANN simulations. The figures for the root mean square error and the coefficient of determination were marginally lower in the ANN steady infiltration rate model than in Philip’s model used for determining the infiltration rate. While the outcomes of these evaluations support the practical use of ANN, having a comprehensive local soil database from various locations would strengthen the assessment of the ANN models.
Cultural weed management in rice (Oryza sativa L.)– rice– toria (Brassica campestris L.) sequence under rainfed areas of North-east India
A field experiment was conducted for two consecutive years in organic blocks of Instructional-cum-Research farm of Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, following randomized block design with eight treatments and three replications. Results revealed that the stale seedbed + 25% reduced spacing + mulching with previous crop residues + one hand weeding (T4) in rice–rice–toria sequence lowered the weed density by 46.6, 45.7 and 24.4%, and weed dry weight by 71.9, 64.9 and 63.8% at 30, 60 days after transplanting/ sowing and at harvest, respectively as compared to weedy check (T8). Treatment T4 also increased the yield and yield attributing parameters as well as the B:C ratio over other treatments in rice–rice–toria sequence. Considering the effect on weed density, weed dry weight, productivity and B:C ratio, the practice of stale seedbed + 25% reduced spacing + mulching with previous crop residues + 1 hand weeding was the best cultural weed management practices in rice–rice–toria cropping sequence.
Distribution of potassium fractions in relation to different physiographic units of Haryana, Northwest India
The distribution of potassium (K) in soils varies across physiographic units due to differences in the intensity of soil-forming factors and processes within each unit. Therefore, we aimed at finding out the relationship between the forms of K (K forms) with physiographic units and the association of K forms with soil properties in the northwestern region of India. For this, horizon-wise soil samples were collected from pedons and soil samples were analyzed for physico-chemical properties and K forms. The results revealed that soil texture varied from sand to clay loam across the pedons. The soils were slightly to strongly alkaline in reaction (pH, 7.8-8.6) with cation exchange capacity (CEC) ranging from 3.51-17.74 cmol(p+)kg-1. The water-soluble potassium (WSK) ranged between 0.016-0.064 cmol(p+)kg-1, exchangeable potassium (EK) between 0.07-0.41 cmol(p+)kg-1, fixed potassium between 0.73-3.70 cmol(p+)kg-1, lattice K from 30.29-48.48 cmol(p+)kg-1 and total potassium from 31.03-52.18 cmol(p+)kg-1 in different horizons of pedons across the physiographic units. Water-soluble K and EK decreased with soil depth whereas fixed K and total K varied irregularly with depth. By and large, the results revealed that all the K forms followed the trend: old alluvial plains > recent alluvial plains > Shivalik hills valley > Shivalik foothills > piedmont plain > aeolian plain. The positive and significant correlation was observed among different forms of K which indicates the existence of interdependency and dynamic equilibrium among K forms.
Farmer response and awareness on soil health cards under Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan (VKSA) in Amritsar district of Punjab, India
The Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan (VKSA), carried out from 29.05.2025 to 12.06.2025, aimed to raise respondent awareness on climate-smart agricultural techniques, focusing on soil health cards (SHCs). Using raised hand counts, 2250 respondents were asked two sets of ten SHC awareness-based questions during VKSA camps. Correlation analysis and heat maps were used for analysis. Analysis revealed that in Attari, 66% respondents were aware of SHC benefits. However, 79.3% of Sarangdev, 70% of Bhattike, and 74% of Mucchal considered SHC effective. 67.3% of Shamnagar respondents obtained SHC reports after sowing, whereas 74.7% of Chamiari were uncertain about fertilizer use. 71.3% and 75.3% of respondents in Dhade and Kambo, respectively, mentioned issues with SHC training and distribution. Correlation analysis revealed that “awareness about SHC” has a moderate positive relationship with “remedial recommendations” (r =0.33) and “preventing fertilizer overuse” (r = 0.35). A positive correlation (r=0.50) between “crop-wise fertilizer plan” and “reduced cost of cultivation” highlights SHC’s economic impact. However, SHC awareness negatively correlates with “information on SHC” (r = -0.65) and “reduced production costs” (r = -0.42). Additionally, long intervals (r=0.51), awareness of SHC use (r=0.52), and distance (r=0.38) affect SHC efficiency. After discussing the constraints of judicious and climatesmart chemical fertilizer use, SHCs were found to be necessary to abate cultivation costs and upsurge the soil health in the region.
Impact of stubble burning on soil health and ecology: A comprehensive review
Rice-wheat cropping system being intensive, generates substantial post-harvest residue. The widespread practice of burning residue on-field, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, poses severe environmental and health challenges. This review synthesizes the detrimental effects of this stubble burning practice, which alone accounts for one-fourth of the air pollution. In 2017-18, an estimated 116 million tonnes of residue were combusted, releasing substantial greenhouse gases (176.1 Mt CO2) and hazardous particulate matter (0.453 Mt PM2.5), linked to respiratory ailments and cardiovascular risks. Furthermore, burning leads to significant annual losses of crucial soil nutrients, including 3850 million kg of organic carbon and substantial amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, while also harming soil microflora. Despite governmental bans, farmers often resort to burning due to its perceived efficiency and cost-effectiveness, especially with the limited 15-day window between rice and wheat cultivation. This paper explores sustainable alternatives such as in-situ residue incorporation using machinery like super seeder and happy seeder, composting (including vermicomposting to address the high C:N ratio of rice straw), bioenergy production (with potential to meet 17% of India’s energy demand, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Punjab), and biochar, which offers carbon sequestration and soil enhancement benefits. While wheat stubble finds some use as animal fodder (around 45% in parts of Punjab), rice stubble utilization is limited due to its silica content. Other potential applications in paper and mushroom industries are also discussed.
Productivity, nutrient uptake, and soil fertility status of acidic soil as influenced by organic amendments and inorganic nutrients applied in rainfed maize (Zea mays L.)
A full fledge experiment was conducted at ICAR–Indian Agricultural Research Institute in Assam, during the Kharif season, 2023–2024 to appraise the impact of organic amendments and inorganic nutrients on kernel yield, nutrient uptake as well as soil fertility in rainfed maize. The study was laid out in split-plot design with three organic inputs viz; control (no input), farmyard manure (FYM) at 10 t ha-1 and vermicompost (VC) at 2.5 t ha-1 at main plot treatments and four levels of inorganic fertilizers viz; control, 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF of NPK fertilizers, each combined with lime at 300 kg per hectare under subplot treatments. Results revealed that FYM at 10 t ha-1 outperformed other treatments in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) uptake in kernel and stover, as well as total nutrient uptake except the treatment applied with VC at 2.5 t ha-1. FYM also improved soil nutrient availability, with a magnitude of 12.06% (N), 5.35% (P), and 11.7% (K) higher over the control treatment. In addition, FYM also led to the highest microbial activity indicators: microbial biomass carbon (MBC) (199.03 μg C/g), dehydrogenase activity (DHA) (6.04 μg TPF/g/hour), and fluorescein diacetate activity (FDA) (2.92 μg fluorescein/g/hour). Among inorganic treatments, the application of 100% RDF with lime at 300 kg ha-1 significantly boosted N, P, and K uptake in kernel and stover, as well as total nutrient uptake compared to other treatments, though it was on par with 75% RDF + lime at 300 kg ha-1 for nitrogen uptake in stover. This treatment also improved soil available nutrients—18.9% (N), 9.4% (P), and 18.1% (K) higher than the control and recorded the highest microbial activity: MBC (210.80 μg C/g), DHA (6.39 μg TPF/g/ hr), and FDA (3 μg fluorescein/g/hr). Vermicompost under organic supplementation and 75% RDF + lime @ 300 kg ha-¹ under inorganic nutrient management enhanced kernel yield by 26.6% and 26.4%, respectively, over the control. The combination of FYM at 10 t ha-1 with 100% RDF + lime yielded the highest kernel output at 4.84 t ha-1. Thus, for the Northeastern region of Assam, either FYM at 10 t ha-1 or 100% RDF + lime individually enhanced nutrient uptake and soil fertility, while their integrated use was most effective in maximizing kernel yield.
Effect of organics with inorganic fertilizers on soil physico-chemical properties and enzymatic activities in rice-wheat cropping system
Field experiments were conducted to assess the effects of combined application of organics with chemical fertilizers on soil physico-chemical properties and enzyme activities of soil in rice-wheat cropping system on Alluvial soils of Varanasi. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design (RBD) with nine treatments comprised of control (no fertilizer), 100% NPK and seven combinations of 70% NPK with different organics viz., FYM, pressmud and vermicompost, applied on nitrogen (N) basis. The result revealed that the substitution of 30% N through pressmud and FYM equally significantly lowered soil pH and improved soil electrical conductivity, organic carbon and cation exchange capacity. Application of 70% RDF + 30% N through FYM and pressmud also increased water holding capacity and reduced soil bulk density creating a good soil condition for enhanced growth of both crops. Application of 70% RDF + 30% N through FYM and pressmud recorded highest level of DTPA extractable Cu (2.73; 2.93 mg kg-1), Mn (13.28; 11.17 mg kg-1) and Zn (2.28; 2.44 mg kg-1), however, the highest DTPA extractable Fe (48.66; 43.59 mg kg-1) was recorded with application of 70% RDF + 30% N by FYM.