Nature-based Solutions in Cold Arid Landscapes: Opportunities for Integrated Land, Water, and Livelihood Resilience: Perspective Paper

Bandana Shakya; Bibek Sharma

doi:10.56093/aaz.v65i2.177113

Authors

Bandana Shakya International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, GPO Box 3226, Khumaltar, Nepal https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7295-4231
Bibek Sharma International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, GPO Box 3226, Khumaltar, Nepal

https://doi.org/10.56093/aaz.v65i2.177113

Keywords:

Ecosystem management, landscape resilience, biodiversity, socio-ecological resilience, Hindu Kush Himalaya, Nature-based Solutions

Abstract

Cold arid landscapes are amongst the most vulnerable, climate-stressed regions in the world. They are characterised by limited biomass, slow ecological processes, fragile soils and tightly coupled climate-land-water-livelihoods systems. The geo-physical and ecological constraints often make us think whether the applicability of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) is feasible in such an environment. This perspective paper argues that NbS remain highly relevant in cold arid regions- not because of natural capital abundance, but because of their design dimension as overarching and integrative framework. NbS design can simultaneously restore land functions, regulate water availability, sustain climate-sensitive biodiversity, and economic development while also promoting inclusive institutions and adaptive management. Drawing on insights from the Hindu Kush Himalaya and other regions of the world, the paper highlights that in an ecologically constrained space, resilience comes not from abundance and scale of nature, but from its coherent design that sustains ecological functions and processes, minimising both ecological and socio-economic vulnerabilities. We thus position NbS as a core resilience strategy for cold arid socio-ecological systems under accelerating climate change

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Bandana Shakya, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, GPO Box 3226, Khumaltar, Nepal

Bandana Shakya is a Senior Landscape Lead at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) overseeing interventions on springshed management, rangeland and wetland restoration, green incentive design, and human-wildlife coexistence that collectively address the integrated land-water-livelihood resilience challenges this paper examines. She also leads the organisation’s Nature-based Solutions portfolio, promoting application of GESI-responsive NbS design for landscape resilience. With over two decades of learning at science-policy-practice interface, and experience across Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan, she has published widely on ecosystem services, sustainability science, transboundary landscape management, and is a strong proponent of transdisciplinary science and knowledge development.
Bibek Sharma, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, GPO Box 3226, Khumaltar, Nepal

Bibek Raj Sharma is a Research Associate at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). He works at the intersection of environmental economics and mountain development. His research interests span nature-based solutions financing, natural capital accounting,
conservation finance, and climate migration. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Economics from Kathmandu University and is currently completing a Master’s in Business and Economics. His publications include a co-authored paper in Nature on weather advisory economics in Pakistan, and contributions to Bhutan’s national natural capital accounting guidelines. He has been part of SANDEE internship programme and previously served as a Research Assistant with Fulbright.

References

Addison, J. and Brown, C. 2014. A multi-scaled analysis of the effect of climate, commodity prices and risk on the livelihoods of Mongolian pastoralists. Journal of Arid Environments 109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2014.05.010

Boonstra, W.J. and De Boer, F.W. 2014. The historical dynamics of social-ecological traps. In: Ambio (Vol. 43, Number 3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-013-0419-1

Calliari, E., Castellari, S., Davis, M., Linnerooth- Bayer, J., Martin, J., Mysiak, J., Pastor, T., Ramieri, E., Scolobig, A., Sterk, M., Veerkamp, C., Wendling, L. and Zandersen, M. 2022. Building climate resilience through nature-based solutions in Europe: A review of enabling knowledge, finance and governance frameworks. Climate Risk Management 37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2022.100450

Chausson, A., Turner, B., Seddon, D., Chabaneix, N., Girardin, C.A.J., Kapos, V., Key, I., Roe, D., Smith, A., Woroniecki, S. and Seddon, N. 2020. Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation. Global Change Biology 26(11). https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15310

Chazdon, R.L., Broadbent, E.N., Rozendaal, D.M.A., Bongers, F., Zambrano, A.M.A., Aide, T.M., Balvanera, P., Becknell, J.M., Boukili, V., Brancalion, P.H.S., Craven, D., Almeida-Cortez, J.S., Cabral, G.A.L., De Jong, B., Denslow, J.S., Dent, D.H., DeWalt, S.J., Dupuy, J.M., Durán, S. M., … Poorter, L. 2016. Carbon sequestration potential of second-growth forest regeneration in the Latin American tropics. Science Advances 2(5). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501639

Cohen-Shacham, E., Andrade, A., Dalton, J., Dudley, N., Jones, M., Kumar, C., Maginnis, S., Maynard, S., Nelson, C.R., Renaud, F.G., Welling, R., and Walters, G. 2019. Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions. In Environmental Science and Policy (Vol. 98). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014

Condori, O.R.C., Fernandez, S.Q. and Salas, G.F.A. 2025. Cobertura vegetal en la recarga de acuíferos: una revisión sistemática. Revista InveCom / ISSN En Línea: 2739-0063, 6(2).

Dakos, V., Boulton, C.A., Buxton, J.E., Abrams, J.F., Arellano-Nava, B., Armstrong McKay, D.I., Bathiany, S., Blaschke, L., Boers, N., Dylewsky, D., López-Martínez, C., Parry, I., Ritchie, P., Van Der Bolt, B., Van Der Laan, L., Weinans, E. and Kéfi, S. 2024. Tipping point detection and early warnings in climate, ecological, and human systems. In: Earth System Dynamics (Vol. 15, Number 4). https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-15-1117-2024

Debele, S.E., Leo, L.S., Kumar, P., Sahani, J., Ommer, J., Bucchignani, E., Vranić, S., Kalas, M., Amirzada, Z., Pavlova, I., Shah, M.A.R., Gonzalez-Ollauri, A. and Di Sabatino, S. 2023. Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies. Science of the Total Environment 902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824

Department of Land Resources 2021. Guidelines For New Generation Watershed Development Projects (WDC-PMKSY 2.0). https://megsoil.gov.in/ docs/Guidelines%20for%20WDC-PMKSY%20 2.0.pdf

Dhakal, B., Khadka, M. and Gautam, M. 2021. Impacts of payment for ecosystem services of mountain agricultural landscapes on farming women in Nepal. GeoJournal 86(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-10116-z

Dong, H., Erdenegerel, A., Hou, X., Ding, W., Bai, H. and Han, C. 2023. Herders’ adaptation strategies and animal husbandry development under climate change: A panel data analysis. Science of the Total Environment 872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162144 Dong, S. 2023. Revitalizing the grassland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Grassland Research 2(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/glr2.12055

Dregne, H.E. 2002. Land degradation in the drylands. Arid Land Research and Management 16(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/153249802317304422

Dubo, T., Palomo, I., Camacho, L.L., Locatelli, B., Cugniet, A., Racinais, N. and Lavorel, S. 2023. Nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation are not located where they are most needed across the Alps. Regional Environmental Change 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01998-w

Eldridge, D.J., Reed, S., Travers, S.K., Bowker, M.A., Maestre, F.T., Ding, J., Havrilla, C., Antoninka, A., Belnap, J., Chaudhary, B., Faist, A., Ferrenberg, S., Huber-Sannwald, E., Malam Issa, O. and Zhao, Y. 2020. The pervasive and multifaceted influence of biocrusts on water in the world’s drylands. Global Change Biology 26(10). https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15232

Elmendorf, S.C., Henry, G.H.R., Hollister, R.D., Björk, R.G., Boulanger-Lapointe, N., Cooper, E.J., Cornelissen, J.H.C., Day, T.A., Dorrepaal, E., Elumeeva, T.G., Gill, M., Gould, W. A., Harte, J., Hik, D.S., Hofgaard, A., Johnson, D.R., Johnstone, J.F., Jónsdóttir, I.S., Jorgenson, J.C., … Wipf, S. 2012. Plot-scale evidence of tundra vegetation change and links to recent summer warming. Nature Climate Change 2(6). https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1465

FAO 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition -Policy Support and Governance-. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (Vol. 7, Number 7).

Gentle, P. and Maraseni, T.N. 2012. Climate change, poverty and livelihoods: Adaptation practices by rural mountain communities in Nepal. Environmental Science and Policy 21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.03.007

Gorain, S., Malakar, A. and Dutta, S. 2025. Nature- Based Solutions (NbS) for Restoration and Management of Dryland Ecosystems. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-95-0389-6_3

Griscom, B.W., Adams, J., Ellis, P.W., Houghton, R.A., Lomax, G., Miteva, D.A., Schlesinger, W.H., Shoch, D., Siikamäki, J.V., Smith, P., Woodbury, P., Zganjar, C., Blackman, A., Campari, J., Conant, R.T., Delgado, C., Elias, P., Gopalakrishna, T., Hamsik, M. R., … Fargione, J. 2017. Natural climate solutions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114(44). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710465114

Günther, A., Barthelmes, A., Huth, V., Joosten, H., Jurasinski, G., Koebsch, F. and Couwenberg, J. 2020. Prompt rewetting of drained peatlands reduces climate warming despite methane emissions. Nature Communications 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15499-z

Harris, R.B. 2010. Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: A review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. In: Journal of Arid Environments (Vol. 74, Number 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.06.014

Pörtner, H.-O., Roberts, D.C., Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Tignor, M., Poloczanska, E., Mintenbeck, K., Alegría, A., Nicolai, M., Okem, A., Petzold, J., Rama, B. and Weyer., N. M. 2022. IPCC, 2019: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, (October).

Hou, L., Liu, P. and Tian, X. 2023. Grassland tenure reform and grassland quality in China. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 105(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12357

Huang, X., Liu, X., Liao, L., Li, J., Luo, G., Li, B., Ma, Z. and Wang, Z. 2025. Grazing decreases carbon storage in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau grasslands. Communications Earth and Environment 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02162-y

Hugelius, G., Loisel, J., Chadburn, S., Jackson, R.B., Jones, M., MacDonald, G., Marushchak, M., Olefeldt, D., Packalen, M., Siewert, M.B., Treat, C., Turetsky, M., Voigt, C. and Yu, Z. 2020. Large stocks of peatland carbon and nitrogen are vulnerable to permafrost thaw. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117(34). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916387117

Immerzeel, W.W., Lutz, A.F., Andrade, M., Bahl, A., Biemans, H., Bolch, T., Hyde, S., Brumby, S., Davies, B.J., Elmore, A.C., Emmer, A., Feng, M., Fernández, A., Haritashya, U., Kargel, J.S., Koppes, M., Kraaijenbrink, P.D.A., Kulkarni, A.V., Mayewski, P.A., … Baillie, J.E.M. 2020. Importance and vulnerability of the world’s water towers. Nature 577(7790). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1822-y

IPBES 2019. Global Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Eds. E. Brondízio, J. Settele, S. Díaz and H. Ngo) IPBES secretariat.

IPCC-IPBES 2020. Biodiversity and Climate Change: Scientific outcome. Ipbes-Ipcc Co-Sponsored Workshop. IUCN 2020. IUCN Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions. Guidance for Using the IUCN Global Standard for Nature-Based Solutions: First Editions.

Jia, Y., Chen, S., Wu, M., Gu, Y., Wei, P., Wu, T., Shang, Z., Wang, S. and Yu, H. 2023. Improved permafrost stability by revegetation in extremely degraded grassland of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Geoderma 430: 116350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116350

Jia, Z., Weng, B., Yan, D., Peng, H. and Dong, Z. 2024. The effects of different factors on soil water infiltration properties in High Mountain Asia: A meta-analysis. Catena (Vol. 234). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107583

Jin, X., Jin, H., Luo, D., Sheng, Y., Wu, Q., Wu, J., Wang, W., Huang, S., Li, X., Liang, S., Wang, Q., He, R., Serban, R.D., Ma, Q., Gao, S. and Li, Y. 2022. Impacts of permafrost degradation on hydrology and vegetation in the source area of Plateau, Southwest China. Frontiers in Earth Science 10.

https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.845824

Joshi, S. and Ghimire, R. 2024. Women in water resource management: A review of water policies of Nepal. World Water Policy 10(2).

https://doi.org/10.1002/wwp2.12194

Kabisch, N., Korn, H., Stadler, J. and Bonn, A. 2017. Nature-Based Solutions to Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Areas-Linkages Between Science, Policy and Practice.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56091-5_1

Keesstra, S., Nunes, J., Novara, A., Finger, D., Avelar, D., Kalantari, Z. and Cerdà, A. 2018. The superior effect of nature based solutions in land management for enhancing ecosystem services. In: Science of the Total Environment (Vols. 610-611). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.077

Kerven, C., Robinson, S., Behnke, R., Kushenov, K. and Milner-Gulland, E.J. 2016. A pastoral frontier: From chaos to capitalism and the re-colonisation of the Kazakh rangelands. Journal of Arid Environments 127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2015.11.003

Körner, C. 2021a. Alpine plant life: Functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems. In: Alpine Plant Life: Functional Plant Ecology of High Mountain Ecosystems. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59538-8

Körner, C. 2021b. Alpine plant life: Functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems. In Alpine Plant Life: Functional Plant Ecology of High Mountain Ecosystems. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59538-8

Le, T.A.T., Vodden, K., Wu, J., Bullock, R. and Sabau, G. 2024. Payments for ecosystem services programs: A global review of contributions towards sustainability. In: Heliyon (Vol. 10, Number 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22361

Lenton, T.M. 2025. Global tipping points report 2025. In: The Global Tipping Points Report 2025.

Lohmann, D., Tietjen, B., Blaum, N., Joubert, D.F. and Jeltsch, F. 2014. Prescribed fire as a tool for managing shrub encroachment in semi-arid savanna rangelands. Journal of Arid Environments 107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2014.04.003

Maes, J. and Jacobs, S. 2017. Nature-Based Solutions for Europe’s Sustainable Development. Conservation Letters 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12216

Matin, N., Forrester, J. and Ensor, J. 2018. What is equitable resilience? World Development 109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.04.020

McMahon, T.A. and Nathan, R.J. 2021. Baseflow and transmission loss: A review. In Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 8(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1527

Mekuria, W., Wondie, M., Amare, T., Wubet, A., Feyisa, T. and Yitaferu, B. 2018. Restoration of degraded landscapes for ecosystem services in North-Western Ethiopia. Heliyon 4(8). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00764

Meles, M.B., Bradford, S., Casillas-Trasvina, A., Chen, L., Osterman, G., Hatch, T., Ajami, H., Crompton, O., Levers, L. and Kisekka, I. 2024. Uncovering the gaps in managed aquifer recharge for sustainable groundwater management: A focus on hillslopes and mountains. Journal of Hydrology (Vol. 639). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131615

Mirzabaev, A., Ahmed, M., Werner, J., Pender, J., and Louhaichi, M. 2016. Rangelands of Central Asia: challenges and opportunities. Journal of Arid Land 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40333-015-0057-5

Niu, Y., Bai, Y. and Rossi, S. 2024. Editorial: Vegetation-based degradation and restoration on the alpine grasslands of the Tibetan plateau. Frontiers in Plant Science (Vol. 15). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1467335

Norphel, C. and Tashi, P. 2015. Snow Water Harvesting in the Cold Desert in Ladakh: An Introduction to Artificial Glacier. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55242-0_11

Nüsser, M., Dame, J., Kraus, B., Baghel, R. and Schmidt, S. 2019. Socio-hydrology of “artificial glaciers” in Ladakh, India: assessing adaptive strategies in a changing cryosphere. Regional Environmental Change 19(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1372-0

Ochoa-Tocachi, B.F., Bardales, J.D., Antiporta, J., Pérez, K., Acosta, L., Mao, F., Zulkafli, Z., Gil- Ríos, J., Angulo, O., Grainger, S., Gammie, G., De Bièvre, B. and Buytaert, W. 2019. Potential contributions of pre-Inca infiltration infrastructure to Andean water security. Nature Sustainability 2(7). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0307-1

O’Donnell, J.A., Jorgenson, M.T., Harden, J.W., McGuire, A.D., Kanevskiy, M.Z. and Wickland, K.P. 2012. The effects of permafrost thaw on soil hydrologic, thermal, and carbon dynamics in an Alaskan Peatland. Ecosystems 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-011-9504-0

Oskal, A., Sara, R.B.M.E., Krarup-Hansen, K., Smuk, I.A. and Mathiesen, S.D. 2024. Reindeer Herders’ Food Knowledge Systems. Springer Polar Sciences: Part F1644. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42289-8_6

Ostrom, E. 2009. A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science (Vol. 325, Number 5939). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172133

Pant, N., Hagare, D., Maheshwari, B., Rai, S.P., Sharma, M., Dollin, J., Bhamoriya, V., Puthiyottil, N. and Prasad, J. 2024. Rejuvenation of the Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalayas Through Transdisciplinary Approaches-A Review. Water (Switzerland) (Vol. 16, Number 24). https://doi.org/10.3390/w16243675

Reed, J., Ickowitz, A., Chervier, C., Djoudi, H., Moombe, K., Ros-Tonen, M., Yanou, M., Yuliani, L. and Sunderland, T. 2020. Integrated landscape approaches in the tropics: A brief stock-take. Land Use Policy 99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104822

Roux, D.J., Nel, J.L., Cundill, G., O’Farrell, P. and Fabricius, C. 2017. Transdisciplinary research for systemic change: who to learn with, what to learn about and how to learn. Sustainability Science 12(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-017-0446-0

Rowland, J.C. 2023. Drainage network response to Arctic warming. Nature Communications 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40796-8

Sainnemekh, S., Barrio, I.C., Densambuu, B., Bestelmeyer, B. and Aradóttir, Á.L. 2022a. Rangeland degradation in Mongolia: A systematic review of the evidence. Journal of Arid Environments (Vol. 196). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2021.104654

Salcedo-La Viña, C., Trivedi, A. and Grace, K. 2023. Enabling Women as Key Actors in Nature-based Solutions. World Resources Institute. https://doi.org/10.46830/wriwp.21.00164

Samuels, M.I., Allsopp, N. and Hoffman, M.T. 2019. Traditional Mobile Pastoralism in a Contemporary Semiarid Rangeland in Namaqualand, South Africa. Rangeland Ecology and Management 72(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rama.2018.08.005

Sayer, J., Sunderland, T., Ghazoul, J., Pfund, J.L., Sheil, D., Meijaard, E., Venter, M., Boedhihartono, A.K., Day, M., Garcia, C., Van Oosten, C. and Buck, L.E. 2013. Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (Vol. 110, Number 21). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1210595110

Seddon, N., Chausson, A., Berry, P., Girardin, C.A.J., Smith, A. and Turner, B. 2020. Understanding the value and limits of nature-based solutions to climate change and other global challenges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (Vol. 375, Number 1794). https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0120

Seddon, N., Smith, A., Smith, P., Key, I., Chausson, A., Girardin, C., House, J., Srivastava, S., and Turner, B. 2021. Getting the message right on nature-based solutions to climate change. Global Change Biology 27(8). https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15513

Shaheen, F.A., Wani, M.H., Wani, S.A. and Norphel, C. 2013. Climate change impact in cold arid desert of North-Western Himalaya: Community based adaptations and mitigations. Environmental Science and Engineering 0. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36143-2_15

She, X., Jing, C., Liu, W., Zhang, L., Zhao, Z., Wang, Z., Li, W. and Zhang, Z. 2025. Dynamics and drivers of soil salinization in arid and semiarid regions from 2002 to 2021: A case study in the Qaidam Basin. Ecological Frontiers 45(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecofro.2025.04.004

Shinoda, M. and Nandintsetseg, B. 2011. Soil moisture and vegetation memories in a cold, arid climate. Global and Planetary Change 79(1-2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.08.005

Singh, P.K. and Chudasama, H. 2021. Pathways for climate change adaptations in arid and semi-arid regions. Journal of Cleaner Production 284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124744

Standish, R.J., and Parkhurst, T. 2024. Interventions for resilient nature-based solutions: An ecological perspective. Journal of Ecology 112(11). https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.14377

Tambe, S., Kharel, G., Arrawatia, M.L., Kulkarni, H., Mahamuni, K. and Ganeriwala, A. K. 2012. Reviving dying springs: Climate change adaptation experiments from the Sikkim Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development 32(1). https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00079.1

Thayyen, R.J. 2019. Hydrology of the cold-arid himalaya. In: Himalayan Weather and Climate and their Impact on the Environment. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29684-1_20

Turner, B., Devisscher, T., Chabaneix, N., Woroniecki, S., Messier, C. and Seddon, N. 2022. The role of nature-based solutions in supporting social-ecological resilience for climate change adaptation. Annual Review of Environment and Resources (Vol. 47). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-010017

United Nations 2024. System of Environmental- Economic Accounting-Ecosystem Accounting. https://seea.un.org/ecosystem-accounting.

Vicente Serrano, S.M., Pricope, N.G., Toreti, A., Morán-Tejeda, E., Spinoni, J., Ocampo-Melgar, A., Archer, E., Diedhiou, A., Mesbahzadeh, T., Ravindranath, N. H., Pulwarty, R. S., and Alibakhshi, S. 2024. The Global Threat of Drying Lands: Regional and Global Aridity Trends and Future Projections. https://www.unccd.int/sites/ default/files/2024-12/aridity_report.pdf

Vogel, B. and Bullock, R.C.L. 2021. Institutions, indigenous peoples, and climate change adaptation in the Canadian Arctic. GeoJournal 86(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10212-5

von Oppen, J., Assmann, J.J., Bjorkman, A.D., Treier, U.A., Elberling, B., Nabe-Nielsen, J. and Normand, S. 2022. Cross-scale regulation of seasonal microclimate by vegetation and snow in the Arctic tundra. Global Change Biology 28(24). https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16426

Vuille, M., Carey, M., Huggel, C., Buytaert, W., Rabatel, A., Jacobsen, D., Soruco, A., Villacis, M., Yarleque, C., Elison Timm, O., Condom, T., Salzmann, N. and Sicart, J.E. 2018. Rapid decline of snow and ice in the tropical Andes - Impacts, uncertainties and challenges ahead. Earth- Science Reviews (Vol. 176). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.09.019

Wang, W., Zhao, L., Li, W., Chen, J. and Wang, S. 2023. Response mechanism of sediment organic matter of plateau lakes in cold and arid regions to climate change: A case study of Hulun Lake, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 30(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24097-z

Wang, Z., Cao, C., Yu, Q., Shen, J., Han, M., Xia, W., Sun, X., and Wang, Q. 2025. Uneven frost heave deformation in water conveyance channels in cold-arid regions: Experimental evidence and thermo-hydro-mechanical coupling analysis. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 17(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2024.12.019

Wani, J.M., Thayyen, R.J., Gruber, S., Ojha, C.S.P. and Stumm, D. 2020a. Single-year thermal regime and inferred permafrost occurrence in the upper Ganglass catchment of the cold-arid Himalaya, Ladakh, India. Science of the Total Environment 703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134631

Wani, J.M., Thayyen, R.J., Gruber, S., Ojha, C.S.P. and Stumm, D. 2020b. Single-year thermal regime and inferred permafrost occurrence in the upper Ganglass catchment of the cold-arid Himalaya, Ladakh, India. Science of the Total Environment 703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134631

Warner, E., Giuliani, L. M., Campbell, G.A., Smith, P., Seddon, N., Seddon, D. and Smith, A. C. 2025. Integrated above- and below-ground ecological monitoring for nature-based solutions. Ecological Solutions and Evidence (Vol. 6, Number 2). https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70043

Weise, H., Auge, H., Baessler, C., Bärlund, I., Bennett, E.M., Berger, U., Bohn, F., Bonn, A., Borchardt, D., Brand, F., Chatzinotas, A., Corstanje, R., De Laender, F., Dietrich, P., Dunker, S., Durka, W., Fazey, I., Groeneveld, J., Guilbaud, C.S.E., … Grimm, V. 2020. Resilience trinity: safeguarding ecosystem functioning and services across three different time horizons and decision contexts. Oikos, 129(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.07213

Wickenberg, B. 2024. Collaborating for nature-based solutions: bringing research and practice together. Local Environment (Vol. 29, Number 1). https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2023.2254797

Wilson, D., Farrell, C.A., Fallon, D., Moser, G., Müller, C., and Renou-Wilson, F. 2016. Multiyear greenhouse gas balances at a rewetted temperate peatland. Global Change Biology 22(12). https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13325

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR) 2021. Chapter 21: Natural Regeneration. In: Wisconsin Silviculture Guide (Silviculture Handbook). Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.

Woroniecki, S., Spiegelenberg, F.A., Chausson, A., Turner, B., Key, I., Md. Irfanullah, H. and Seddon, N. 2023. Contributions of nature-based solutions to reducing people’s vulnerabilities to climate change across the rural Global South. In Climate and Development (Vol. 15, Number 7). https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2022.2129954

Wunder, S. 2015. Revisiting the concept of payments for environmental services. Ecological Economics, 117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.08.016

Xin, H., Lv, C., Li, N., Peng, L., Chang, M., Li, Y., Geng, Q., Chen, S., and Lai, N. 2025. Analysis of soil nutrient content and carbon pool dynamics under different cropping systems. Sustainability (Switzerland) 17(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/su17093881

Yager, K., Prieto, M., and Meneses, R.I. 2021. Reframing Pastoral Practices of Bofedal Management to Increase the Resilience of Andean Water Towers. Mountain Research and Development, 41(4). https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-21-00011.1

Yao, T., Thompson, L. G., Mosbrugger, V., Zhang, F., Ma, Y., Luo, T., Xu, B., Yang, X., Joswiak, D. R., Wang, W., Joswiak, M. E., Devkota, L.P., Tayal, S., Jilani, R., and Fayziev, R. 2012. Third Pole Environment (TPE). Environmental Development 3(1).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2012.04.002

Zhang, W., Cheng, Q., Li, F., Kumar, A., Qin, G., Liu, L., Hui, D., Li, H., Yuan, X., and Liu, D. 2025a. Anthropogenic and climatic drivers of alpine wetland degradation: a multi-scale perspective. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1682353

Zhang, Z., Wu, X., Chen, S., Jia, L., Wang, Q., Zhang, Z., Li, M., Jia, R., and Lin, Q. 2025b. Spatial pattern and driving mechanisms of settlements in the agro-pastoral ecotone of Northern China: A case study of Eastern Inner Mongolia. Land 14(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/land14061268

Zhou, G., Huan, Y., Wang, L., Zhang, R., Liang, T., Han, X. and Feng, Z. 2023. Constructing a multi-leveled ecological security pattern for improving ecosystem connectivity in the Asian water Tower region. Ecological Indicators 154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110597