Gender Differences in Production Efficiency and Food Security among Rice Farmers in Ebonyi State

kelechi ANYIAM; Kelechi Chima Igwe; Cynthia Onyinye Obinna-Nwandikom; Taofeeq Ade  AMUSA; Okoronkwo Christopher  ENOCH; Ime Godswill  ISAIAH; Akanele Chori  OBASI; Frank Nna  OKORO; Obumneke Emmanuel  MBAKAOGU; Chinwe Nnene  OBICHERE; Onyinyechi Innocentia  ADJAERO; Emmanuel Iyke  NNOROM; Ujunwa Miriam  OLUMBA

doi:10.48165/IJEE.2026.62328

Authors

K.H. Anyiam Federal University of Technology Owerri https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3775-4714
K.C. Igwe Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0009-0006-2456-8583
C.O. Obinna-Nwandikom Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1401-2187
T.A. Amusa Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9383-4845
O.C. Enoch Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0500-3329
I.G. Isaiah Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5153-6655
A.C. Obasi Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9488-0210
F.N. Okoro Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0009-0003-2536-9699
O.E. Mbakaogu Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1240-5103
C.N. Obichere Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0009-0000-4225-5341
O.I. Adjaero Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1993-8353
E.I. Nnorom Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1826-9242
U.M. Olumba Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5439-5904

https://doi.org/10.48165/IJEE.2026.62328

Keywords:

Agricultural Extension, Food Security, Gender Analysis, Production Efficiency, Rice Farmers, Technology Adoption

Abstract

The study examined gender, production efficiency, and food security among smallholder upland and swamp rice farmers in Ebonyi State, Nigeria, between January and December 2025. The study determined technical, allocative, and economic efficiencies by gender, assessed food security status, and identified technology gaps and inadequacies. A multi-stage sampling procedure selected 180 farmers comprising 72 upland and 108 swamp rice farmers. Data were analyzed using Data Envelopment Analysis, Foster-Greer-Thorbecke index, Technology Gap Ratio, and Technology Inadequacy Ratio. The results showed low technical and economic efficiencies across production systems. Mean technical efficiency under constant returns to scale was 0.337 for upland farmers, 0.616 for male swamp farmers, and 0.532 for female swamp farmers. Economic efficiency was highest among female upland farmers (0.307) and lowest among female swamp farmers (0.133). Food insecurity was most severe among male swamp farmers, with headcount ratio, depth, and severity indices of 0.852, 0.382, and 0.180, respectively. Female swamp farmers recorded the highest technology gap ratio (91.09%). The study concluded that gender disparities and technology inadequacies significantly influenced production efficiency and food security among rice farmers in Ebonyi State.

Author Biographies

K.H. Anyiam, Federal University of Technology Owerri

Kelechi Henry Anyiam, holds a Ph.D. in Agricultural Economics with specialization in Farm Management and Production Economics. He is current a Lecturer I in the department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
K.C. Igwe, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria

Kelechi Chima Anyiam is a professor of Agricultural Economics in Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike.
C.O. Obinna-Nwandikom, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State

Cynthia Onyinye Obinna-Nwandikom, holds a Ph.D in Agricultural Economics. She is currently a Lecturer I in the department of Agribusiness, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State
T.A. Amusa, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria

Tofeeq Ade Amusa is an associate professor in the department of agricultural Economics, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
O.C. Enoch, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

O.C. Enoch is an Assistant Lecturer in the department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
I.G. Isaiah, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Ime Godswill Isaiah is a Lecturer II in the department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
A.C. Obasi, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

A.C. Obasi is an Assistant Lecturer in the department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
F.N. Okoro, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria

Frank Nna Okoro, holds Ph.D in Agricultural Finance. He is a financial consultant in the department of Agricultural Economics, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
O.E. Mbakaogu, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

O.E. Mbakaogu is an Assistant Lecturer in the department of Agribusiness, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
C.N. Obichere, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Chinwe Nnene Obichere is a Lecturer II in the department of Agricultural Extension, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
O.I. Adjaero, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

O.I.Adjaero is an Assistant Lecturer in the department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
E.I. Nnorom, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Emmanuel Iyke Nnorom is an Assistant Lecturer in the department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
U.M. Olumba, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Ujunwa Miriam Olumba is an Assistant Lecturer in the department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

References

Amusan, J. M., Dada, G. E., Adejoorin, M. V., Adewale, A. A., Salufu, O. A., Salman, K. K., & Atoyebi, J. O. (2023). Impact of climatic variability on food security among rural households in Nigeria. In Proceedings of the 22nd National Conference of the Nigerian Association of Agricultural Economists (NAAE) (pp. 68–85). University of Ibadan.

Aryal, J. P., Mottaleb, K. A., & Rahut, D. B. (2019). Untangling gender differentiated food security gaps in Bhutan: An application of exogenous switching treatment regression. Review of Development Economics, 23(2), 782–802. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12566.

Chandra, S., Singh, A. K., Ghadei, K., & Pradhan, S. (2023). Exploring the relationship between socio-economic factors and ICT adoption among farmers. Indian Journal of Extension Education, 59(3), 54–57. http://doi.org/10.48165/IJEE.2023.59310 .

Chidiebere-Mark, N., Ohajianya, D., Obasi, P., & Onyeagocha, S. (2019). Profitability of rice production in different production systems in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Open Agriculture, 4(1), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2019-0023

Chima, O. C., Genevie, D. E., Duruji, M. M., Osimen, G. U., & Abasilim, U. (2024). Anchor Borrowers’ Programme on rice production and food security in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biological Sciences, 6(13), 2378–2397. https://doi.org/10.33472/AFJBS.6.13.2024.2378-2397

Dossou-Yovo, E. R., Vandamme, E., Dieng, I., Jean-Martial, J., & Kazuki, S. (2020). Decomposing rice yield gaps into efficiency, resource, and technology yield gaps in sub-Saharan Africa. Field Crops Research, 258, 107963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2020.107963

Esheya, S. E., Ogbonna, S. I., & Nwandu, P. I. (2024). Empirical analysis of the factors promoting food insecurity among farming households in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 14(1), 33–39. https://gjournals.org/GJAS

Ezeaputa, P. C., Onugu, U. C., Obiekwe, N. J., & Offiah, E. O. (2020). Assessment of the participation of women in family farming among rice-producing communities in rural areas of Anambra State, Nigeria. International Journal of Applied Science and Research, 3(5), 133–171. https://www.ijasr.org/paper/IJASR0042261

Ezeh, A. N., Enyigwe, J. O., & Egwu, P. N. (2022). Farmers’ utilization of improved rice production technologies in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 21, 43–49. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjass.v21i1.6

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2023).The status of women in agrifood systems. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5343en

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2024). FAOSTAT statistical database: Crops and livestock products. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL

Gogoi, J., Buragohain, R., & Deka, N. (2022). What motivates rice farmers to adopt hybrid rice technology in Assam, India? Indian Journal of Extension Education, 58(3), 74–77. https://doi.org/10.48165/IJEE.2022.58316 .

Ibrahim, R. M., Abdullahi, S., Haruna, U., & Dabo, N. M. (2024). Factors influencing the adoption of improved rice production technologies in Western Zone, Bauchi State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, 4(4A), 101–111. https://doi.org/10.59331/njaat.v4i4A.864

Ismail, A., Zahid, Z., Hussin, S. A. S., & Khairi, S. S. M. (2018). Modelling the efficiency of paddy production in Peninsular Malaysia using principal component analysis and data envelopment analysis (PCA-DEA). International Journal of Supply Chain Management, 7(4), 158–171.

Kamai, N., Omoigui, L. O., Kamara, A. Y., & Ekeleme, F. (2020). Guide to rice production in northern Nigeria. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Guide-to-Rice-Production-in-Northern-Nigeria

Kohl, S., Schoenfelder, J., Fugener, A., & Brunner, O. J. (2019). The use of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) in healthcare with a focus on hospitals. Health Care Management Science, 22, 423–451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10729-018-9436-8

Michael, B. V., Siéwé, F., Abdulqudus, A. I., Angarawai, I. I., Ajeigbe, H. A., Ojeiwo, C., & Bako, N. S. (2021). Production efficiency of pearl millet farming households in Nigeria: A translog primal cost system approach. Journal of Food Security, 9(4), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.12691/jfs-9-4-4

Munonye, J. O., Matthew, D. E., Olaolu, M., Onyeneke, R. U., Obi, J. N., Amadi, M., Ibrahim, S. O., Izuogu, C. U., & Njoku, L. C. (2023). The impact of food security and poverty status on rural household farmers in Ikwo, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 23(6), 23637–23656. https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.123.2345

Munonye, J. O., Osuji, E., Olaolu, M., Okoisu, A., Obi, J., Eze, G., Ibrahim-Olesin, S., Njoku, L., Amadi, M., Izuogu, C., & Azuamairo, G. (2022). Perceived effects of COVID-19 pandemic on food security in Southeast Nigeria. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.886317

Nain M. S., Singh R., Mishra J.R. & Sharma J.P. (2015). Utilization and linkage with agricultural information sources: a study of Palwal district of Haryana state. Journal of Community Mobilization and Sustainable Development, 10(2), 152-156.

National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS) & Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD). (2020). 2020 wet season agricultural performance survey in Nigeria. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). (2021). Consumption expenditure report. https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/

National Population Commission (NPC) & National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). (2016). Population projections for Nigeria: 2006–2016. National Population Commission.

Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NiMet). (2021). Climate profile of Ebonyi State. https://www.canr.msu.edu/fsg/projects

Niranjan S., Singh D.R., Kumar N.R., Jha G.K., Venkatesh P., Nain M.S, & Krishnakumare B.(2023). Do information networks enhance adoption of sustainable agricultural practices? Evidence from northern dry zone of Karnataka, India, Indian Journal of Extension Education 59 (1), 86-91 http://doi.org/10.48165/IJEE.2023.59118

Njoku, C. L., Mgbeokwere, M. C., Izuogu, C. U., Olaolu, M. O., Azuamairo, G. C., Olesin-Ibrahim, S., & Agou, G. D. (2025). Sex-based constraints in accessing agricultural resources in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 29(1), 48–54. https://doi.org/10.4314/jae.v29i1.1

Nwahia, O. C., Balogun, O. S., Balogun, O. L., Emeghara, U. U., Onwegbunam, N. E., & Bala, U. J. (2020). Analysis of technical, allocative and economic efficiency of rice farmers in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences, 10(106), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.18551/rjoas.2020-10.16

Onyeneke, R. U. (2021). Does climate change adaptation lead to increased productivity of rice production? Lessons from Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 36, 54–68. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170519000486

Silva, K. N. N. (2023). Social network to accelerate agricultural technology adoption: Evidence from Hambanthota District, Sri Lanka. Indian Journal of Extension Education, 59(1), 1–6. http://doi.org/10.48165/IJEE.2023.59101 .

Ugwu, J. N., Mbah, G. O., Chidiebere-Mark, N., Tim-Ashama, A., Ohajianya, D. O., & Okwara, M. O. (2017). Technical efficiency of swamp rice farmers in Ebonyi South Agricultural Zone, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 4(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.68/2017.4.1/68.1.1.6